Education-Ideas

Making life a little easier for students

2012-01-10T22:19:00.000-08:00

Students aspiring for higher education, particularly for Engineering, Medicine and MBA have a huge task on their hands. Studying hard and appearing for the examinations is only half the battle. The uphill task continues after that. They have to appear for a number of entrance examinations, depending upon the colleges they are keen to apply to. They have to then either physically procure the application forms from the colleges of their choice or download them from the college/ university websites, fill each one up, get demand drafts for application processing fees and then submit them. A lot of careful decision making must happen here - how many colleges to apply to, selecting the right colleges and preferred streams. These are critical decisions because they play a big role in shaping their higher education and careers. Parents, as parties to this decision making process are stressed as well. Then begins the period of praying, waiting and following up.

Apply2Many.com is making a good attempt to make most of these challenges easier for students. The site provides a single window from where students can apply to many colleges by filling up one single form and making a consolidated payment for application processing. All relevant documents and certificates need to be uploaded only once. The site thus provides a single window from where students can track the status of all their applications, receive email and SMS alerts for interviews and Group Discussions. The site also makes it easy for the students to explore more institutions and streams through a search tool.

College staff responsible for admissions is not spared from the stress either. Manually going through each application form, shortlisting potential candidates is a time consuming and tiring processes. Apply2Many.com makes this process easier as well by enabling the staff to query the applications based on criteria of their choice, as defined in their own application forms. As the reach of the institution increases, it will also attract more students - from other cities, states and even countries.

It would be great educational institutions accept such a platform as it will benefit all parties involved.

Connecting Teachers

2010-04-03T00:26:00.000-07:00

The need for a teacher network

There are over 5.8 million teachers across 1.25 million schools across India, teaching over 185 million students in K-8 levels (2009 & 2009c). 87% of the schools are located in rural India. (Press Information Bureau, Govt. of India, 2010).

Teacher shortages are very significant. There are 4 teachers per school in rural India (2009a) and 7.9 teachers per school in Urban India (2009b). A relatively recent phenomenon is the employment of para-teachers. Para-teachers are not regular teachers- they are employed on a contractual basis, earning a salary less than the regular primary teachers. There are over 538,000 para-teachers in India- 9.4% of the total number of teachers (Press Information Bureau, Govt. of India, 2010). The approach seems to be to improve the pupil-teacher ratio at a lower cost.

Only about 40% of the teachers claim to have received in-service training (2009a). Low income and inadequate training and resources have a detrimental impact on teacher motivation levels. Teacher absenteeism is a major concern in India, ranging from 15-42% for various states and averaging at 25% (2006).

In India, access to computers and penetration of internet on computers is still limited. At the all India level, 14% of the all schools have a computer. The percentage of primary schools with computers is 6% compared to 14% in independent upper primary schools/ sections (2009). Schools under private management are more likely to have computers compared to Government schools (2007). The incidence of use of computers by (or for training) teachers, is likely to be even lower. Sometimes, even access to basic needs such as electricity can be an issue with power outages for over 6 hours every day in rural areas.

Further, dispersed geographic locations, different languages and limited financial resources pose serious barriers. Even if the financial constraints were removed and some training was provided for the use of computers, language barriers would still limit the productivity.

Given all the constraints outlined, how can school teachers, especially in rural India gain access to information, training and resources that their peers in the developed world have, where access to computers, to the internet and portable technologies is easier and more affordable? How can these teachers connect with other teachers, with people or organizations holding interests in the education sector such as training providers, educational content creators, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and educational policy makers?

Mobile phones as an alternative to computers

There are over 45 million internet users in India (2008). Considering that India has a population of 1.1 billion, this number is rather small. On the other hand, the number of mobile subscribers is already over 400 million (2009d). Clearly, mobile as a device offers huge potential to connect people. Going forward, the growth in mobile penetration is expected to come from subscriptions in rural India.

A computer still costs at least USD 400, not including the cost of internet access (if it exists), which would be well over USD 100 per annum. On the other hand, a mobile device (with capability to connect to the internet) costs under USD 50 and the average monthly billing is under USD 4. As mobile phones with better features become affordable and given that usage charges are relatively lower compared to the developed nations, there is a case to set up a mobile based network to enable teachers by providing them access to relevant information and resources. It should be possible to even customize the information in terms of location, language and level of teaching.

What should be the scope of the Teacher Network?

· Sharing useful resources, best teaching practices

· Announce information relevant to teachers

· Support for in-service distance learning

· Platform to express views and post questions

· Recognition of special efforts/ Awards

· Enable making connections with teachers within a district and across India

How can connecting teachers help?

· Positive impact on teacher motivation

· Better access to and utilization of resources

· Bridging the gap between urban and rural India in terms of access- effectively and efficiently

· Significant improvements in their current practice

· Opportunity for continued contact rather than one time/ irregular training schedules

These would in turn have a positive impact on the quality of education the students receive and their lives.

References

Global campaign for education – more teachers needed. (2006, 24 April). Retrieved 31 Jan, 2010, from http://www.unicef.org/india/resources_1551.htm

India adds 11.08 mln GSM subscribers in November. (2009d). Retrieved 31 Jan 2010 from http://www.telecompaper.com/news/article.aspx?cid=709135

India progressing towards universal elementary education: Where goes missing 40% efficiency? [Electronic (2007). Version]. Digital Learning. Retrieved 31 Jan 2010 from http://schoolreportcards.in/Media/m52.html

Internet & Mobile Association of India. (2008). 45 Million Internet users in India. Retrieved 31 Jan 2010 from http://www.imrbint.com/media/45..pdf : Internet & Mobile Association of India

Muralidharan, K., & Sundararaman, V. (2009). Teacher performance pay: Experimental evidence from India. National Bureau of Economic Research. Retrieved 31 Jan 2010 from http://econ.ucsd.edu/~kamurali/teacher%20performance%20pay.pdf

National University of Educational Planning and Administration & Department of School Education and Literacy (2009). Elementary Education in India: (State Report Cards 2007-08). Retrieved 31 Jan 2010 from http://www.dise.in/Downloads/Publication 2007-08/src0708/SRC 2007-08.pdf

National University of Educational Planning and Administration & Department of School Education and Literacy (2009a). Elementary Education in Rural/ Urban India 2007-08: Rural India (Analytical Tables): Teacher-Related Indicators Part I. Retrieved 31 Jan 2010 from http://www.dise.in/Downloads/Publication%202007-08/Rural0708/teacher_part1.pdf

National University of Educational Planning and Administration & Department of School Education and Literacy (2009b). Elementary Education in Rural/ Urban India 2007-08: Urban India (Analytical Tables): Teacher-Related Indicators Part I. Retrieved 31 Jan 2010 from http://www.dise.in/Downloads/Publication%202007-08/Urban0708/Teacher-Part%20I.pdf

National University of Educational Planning and Administration (NUEPA) & Department of School Education and Literacy. (2009c). Flash Statistics: Elementary Education in India: Progress towards UEE. Retrieved 31 Jan 2010 from http://www.dise.in/DISE-Flash-Statistics-2008-09-nuepa.pdf

Press Information Bureau, Government of India (2010). Enrolment at primary and upper primary level increases to 134.38 million in 2008-09 from 101.16 million in 2002-03. Retrieved 31 Jan 2010 from http://pib.nic.in/release/release.asp?relid=57231

Somekh, B., & Lewin, C. (Eds.). (2007). Research Methods in the Social Sciences.

Traxler, J. (2007). Using mobile phones: Training teachers with text messages, Footsteps (71). Retrieved 31 Jan, 2010, from http://tilz.tearfund.org/Publications/Footsteps+71-80/Footsteps+71/Using+mobile+phones+-+Training+teachers+with+text+messages.htm

Weller, M. (2007). The distance from isolation: Why communities are the logical conclusion in e-learning. Computers & Education, 49(2), 148-159.

Using concepts from advertising in education

2010-03-01T07:16:00.000-08:00

What is “learning”? According to the dictionary, it is to gain knowledge or skill by study, by experience or being taught, to become aware of through information or observation, to memorize or to realize.

Advertising, irrespective of the medium, aims to tell us something. In most cases it seeks to sell us something or make us part with our money. And it does that in thirty seconds on TV! I am sure there are times when you see the commercial just once and you feel like buying the product or service. You are convinced that you need it and the next time you visit the grocery store, you ask for it by name or look for it on the shelves.

How many times we see a commercial does impact our ability to remember it. However, there are instances when we remember the commercial even after seeing it just once and sometimes we remember advertising that we saw years ago. On the other hand, we have difficulty in remembering at an exam, what we studied the night before! Perhaps there is something that can be borrowed from advertising here.

In preparing a TV commercial, an advertising brief is translated into a 30 sec commercial. A typical brief covers the following aspects:
- An understanding of the consumer, the purchaser, the influencer in terms of demographics and psychographics
- Details about the product or service to be promoted, it’s price, purchase occasion
- The brand image and the direction it is to take
- The call to action- purchase a product/ call a number/ donate money/ join an organization
- A listing of the competitive set which can range within or across category
- The output required and the media to be used

How does all this get translated into a 60 or a 30 sec TV commercial? The creative teams are adept at doing this. They take special care of the executional aspects-the setting, the music, the actors, the dialogue, the colors used. All these work in a synergistic manner to ensure that you remember the brand name and the message about the brand.

How does the advertising work? Advertising messages tell a story in less than 60 seconds, sometimes even 30 seconds. Teaching can be as simple or exciting as telling a story. Teaching science can be a story too- for instance- what scientists originally thought about a phenomenon, how they experimented, how more modern research confirmed or disproved theories on a subject and what are the applications and relevance for today, and where do they expect the subject in study to find applications in future, which organizations or institutions are now working on that particular subject. By providing a more complete picture, learning the subject does not become memorizing a set of answers but rather understanding the subject and it’s relevance to their study and in life.

For an advertising campaign to be effective, the advertising message has to be seen by the potential customer a few times. Traditional theory puts this at a minimum of three exposures. The more recent theory of “recency” relies on the idea that a message will be retained at a time when it’s most relevant- a detergent ad is most remembered when the box in your house is about to get over, you are most likely to notice advertising for cars when you are about to buy one. In such situations, the impact of the most recent exposure will be the highest. Schools, libraries, websites, museums and science centers must use this idea and tailor the promotions and activities in accordance with the school syllabus.

Advertising messages that are liked, that are enjoyable are remembered most easily. That means if we are able to make learning experiences more enjoyable, more relevant, they will be more memorable. The converse is true as well-advertising that does not offer a pleasant experience will have a negative impact on the brand. Similarly, learning that is not pleasant or that is being forced on a student who is not interested is bound to go waste. (Was I happy when I could opt out of Physics at senior college!)

Just as an advertiser keeps you interested in his brand over a number of years, the teacher/ school/ website has to find ways to sustain a student’s interest in a subject over a number of years. To maintain continuity and sustain interest, we should treat knowledge as building blocks, adding one block at a time, moving from the know to unknown. Identify concepts which are key, finding applications in the future years of education or work and pay special attention to them, reminding about them at periodic intervals.

Call to action - The advertiser expects the commercial to have some impact on you- in most situations; the expectation is that you rush out to buy the product. Similarly, what should the student do after learning something on a particular subject? Forget it just after the exams are over? If the education offers a call to action, say a real life project, where the concepts learnt in the classroom are applied, not only will the retention be better but its relevance will also be appreciated. Special attention should be given to those students who are ahead of the curve and want to know more about that subject. The teacher must be able to advise where the student can go to learn more on a particular topic.

Media multiplier effect- How can we use that in education?
What is media multiplier effect? Media multiplier works in two ways-

- When more than one medium is used in advertising communication, it helps increase reach as there will be people who will be reached by only one of those media
- When the same audience is reached by the same message in different media, it has an incremental effect- those people will have a stronger retention of the brand name and the message and would be more likely to have a positive inclination in purchasing the product or service

How can we use this effect in teaching?

Integrate classroom learning with what students learn from various educational websites, TV channels, Educational DVDs and VCDs, Museums, Science centers, Libraries.
With repeated “exposures” across media, the retention of the message will be stronger. Some media agencies treat the different media as “touchpoints” and ensure that the potential consumer is reached via every possible touchpoint.

As all students will not have opportunities to be exposed to all these media, the net reach among this audience will be higher.

The key thing is timing. These exposures across media should be about the same time for the multimedia effect to work.

We should explore borrowing such concepts into school education and measure the impact as the advertising industry measures the return on advertising investment.

Using Web-based Resources in Teaching Mathematics

2009-11-26T18:56:00.000-08:00

Introduction

The scope of this study is to assess the impact of using web-based resources in the teaching of mathematics on students’ attitude and learning.

Three factors define the scope of this study:

To determine if visual representation of mathematical concepts and interactivity enhances learning
Impact on student attitude and motivation
To determine feasibility of using of tools that are freely available from the perspective that limited financial resources should not constrain teachers from use of computers in classroom teaching.

8 students of Grade VIII and 7 students of Grade VII at an international school in Bangalore, India were a part of this study. Given the qualitative nature of the study, the small sample size enabled interaction and discussion at depth.

Student profile

Most students had access to computers at home and used it mostly to play games, watch videos and search for information on school projects. Only a few of them used computers for accessing educational websites/ CDs or doing homework assignments. Their past academic performance varied significantly, indicating that the student representation was not homogeneous.

Current practice

The school chosen for the study is a new school, only in its second year of operation. The school has a computer lab with internet access but it was not yet used in teaching any subject. It served more as a resource center for staff and also for students to create their project reports.

The regular mathematics teachers are aware that web-based resources can be used in teaching. However, practical difficulties in structuring lessons and lack of awareness of specific resources that suit the curriculum limit them from actually incorporating web and other computer based resources in teaching of mathematics.

Strategy

The first step was to identify freely available web-based resources relevant to the school curriculum and due to be covered in the first semester of the current academic year (2009-10).

The next step was to teach the students the selected topics over a 3-day period. The motivation levels and attitudes were assessed through observation, feedback collected in writing at the end of every class and finally a group discussion. Learning was assessed through a short pen and paper test covering the topics that were taught using the web-based resources.

Identifying the web-based resources

The web-based resources were identified through internet search and from educational resources such as MERLOT (Multimedia Educational Resource for Learning and Online Teaching). The topics covered (sources listed in Appendix 1):

Grade VIII

· Introduction to quadrilaterals

· Nets

· Linear equations in 1 and 2 variables

· Time- distance & velocity

Grade VII

· Fractions

· Linear equations in one variable

The resources were identified keeping in mind the following criteria:

· Provide an opportunity for interactivity

· Show dynamically the impact of manipulation

· Allow students to investigate without the fear of going wrong

· Did not require any training for use

Research process

The sessions were conducted in the computer laboratory and it was possible to alternate between using a whiteboard and the computers.

A text file containing links to the web-based resources was copied onto each computer. Students were first introduced to the topic using a regular whiteboard and then a brief instruction was given to the students on how to use the web resource.

Given the limited number of computers available, most students had to share them, with one computer to two students.

As this was the first time the computers were being used, it was decided that the scores of the test would not count towards their annual assessment. Feedback was collected in writing at the end of each day. The group discussions were conducted on the third day, after the test.

Assessment of Learning

Grade VIII

Time-distance:

The relationship between time, distance and speed was understood by most students. However, only the academically stronger students managed to produce a correct graph using the information provided in the question.

Linear equations:

While students understood that a linear equation in two variables represents a straight line, identifying points on the line by x and y coordinates and the concept of slope seemed to be difficult. This was their first exposure to the coordinate geometry and the students clearly needed more preparation before introduction of (and more time with) the web based resources.

Quadrilaterals:

During the computer lab session, the students were able to independently identify relationships between the sides and the angles and summarize the properties of various quadrilaterals by manipulating the figures in the web-based resource. However, in the test, they struggled when they were expected to determine the measure of an angle or length of a side in a trapezium.

Nets:

In a quiz conducted just after this session, most students were able to match a polyhedron and the corresponding net. However, in the final test conducted on the third day, the students did not fare as well as anticipated. Students could identify a pyramid but encountered difficulty in identifying a tetrahedron. More students had success with a simple application of Euler’s formula.

Grade VII

Fractions:

As there was some prior exposure to this topic, it helped students in understanding the concepts. Most students were able to answer the related questions in the test.

Linear equations in one variable:

Students did not appreciate the analogy of a balance. While this was not investigated at depth, it is attributed to a great extent to students carrying out mathematical operations mechanically, without trying to understand the reason why a certain term was added to or subtracted from both sides of an equation. Observations, Feedback & Discussion

Access to a computer is fairly easy with most students already having a computer at home. All students were quite familiar with the use of the computer and relevant software.

Student feedback

Grade VIII

“The websites were fun and creative as we ourselves could solve our doubts. Before I found all these shapes to be complicated and boring, but these seem to be very easy now “Student A

“I liked the opening and closing up of the nets and playing with the figures” Student B

“We could really see the object and play around with it…This has been one of the most interesting class I had even though I do not like maths” Student C

“It was good but quite confusing” Student B

“I haven’t understood everything yet but I liked the software a lot” Student C

Grade VII

“We learnt something completely unknown to us and I found it very interesting” Student D

“At first I didn’t understand how to do the algebra but when I understood about it I felt very happy” Student E

“The class was interesting but I did not understand algebraic expression” Student F

The motivation levels were high and there was substantial participation in the class across both the grades. All the students enjoyed learning mathematics using the web based resources. They enjoyed self discovery by manipulation of sliders, interaction with figures representing fractions, quadrilaterals, nets and straight lines. The feedback at the end of everyday indicated that the students clearly enjoyed the sessions and found them interesting. They wanted their future lessons to incorporate the web-based resources. Students were eager to note down the links so that they could practice at home as well.

About half the students felt they now liked learning mathematics more. Some students were keen that the software provides them with feedback when a particular input/ action is wrong. These observations are consistent with those reported elsewhere (Hannafin, Burruss and Little, 2001).

Students reported difficulty in understanding linear equations, evident from the quotes above.

Student pairing

Student pairing does seem to have a powerful role to play. In pairs with students of differing abilities, the weaker ones also demonstrated increased interest and participation. In pairs, where both the students were academically strong, they explored the resources provided to a greater extent and asked more questions. Weak students were not paired together.

The students expressed a need to record on paper what was learnt using the computer as the on- screen manipulations are not accessible in preparation for a written test.

To summarize the differences observed between students, they have been grouped into: “Strong” and “Challenged” based on their past performance in examinations and meaningful classroom participation. These are not meant to reflect their intelligence or any other such measure. “Strong” implies better academic performance and constructive participation in the classroom while “Challenged” implies relatively weaker academic performance.

Strong students	Challenged students
High motivation levels through all sessions and desire to use computers more in their learning	High motivation levels initially but lost interest if unable to cope, leading to seeking distractions- clicking on irrelevant icons, changing screen magnifications, going to other sites etc.
High interest levels in mathematics continue to hold	Significantly increased interest expressed in learning mathematics
Seek independence requesting that the computer program prompt them if a suggested solution is wrong	Expressed need for guidance, simpler visual representation and more preparation in terms of raising the level of prior knowledge.
Prior mathematical techniques used sometimes posed a challenge. e.g. mechanically transferring terms from left hand side to the right hand side by changing the sign in a balanced equation as against adding/ subtracting the same term from both sides	In simplifying a balanced equation (to find the value of a variable), identifying which term needs to be added/ subtracted was not easy
Had used the computer as a tool for learning and doing school projects.	Comfortable in using a computer but had never used it as a tool for learning

Concerns such as those expressed by prospective teachers in Hazzan (2002/2003) become evident. Representing mathematical ideas on a computer did help visualization and stimulate thinking but inadequate preparation on manipulation of algebraic expressions posed difficulties.

Conclusion

Visual representation and interactivity does enhance student learning and motivation.
It is possible that the stronger students may gain more in the short term. Given the high motivation levels, over a longer period of time, it is anticipated to be beneficial to all the students. To ensure that this happens, student pairing needs to have a strategic approach. The suggested approach is to group together students of different abilities and shuffle partners periodically, monitoring the groups to ensure that they remain cohesive.
It is possible to use freely available/ inexpensive web based resources and applications for the teaching of mathematics. However, a limitation of using these freely available resources is that it is not be possible to have a consistent pedagogical approach and on- screen environment, given that sources would be different.
An instructivist learning environment as advocated by Hannafin et al. (2001) would work well: Accommodating learners’ needs and prior knowledge but limiting the amount of content available. Wherever possible, the on-screen information should be limited to what is needed for a student at a particular level- if fractions to be taught are limited to denominator less than 20, the teacher must have the option to restrict the application accordingly.
Worksheets need to be devised based on the activities done using the computer so that students have a record for revision and can also share it with parents at home.
The activities need to well planned and integrated into the classroom routines. Introduction to the topic, preparing students for what to expect is important before the computers are switched on. Students must be asked to switch the monitors off when their attention needs to be diverted to the whiteboard.
Given that the students in Grade VIII and VII consistently expressed their discomfort with Algebra, it would be advisable to adopt an embodied approach with visualization as recommended by Tall (2009), to ensure that students are comfortable with Algebra at higher levels.

Appendix: List of resources used

Grade VII

Lesson 1: Linear equations

http://nlvm.usu.edu/en/nav/frames_asid_324_g_3_t_2.html?open=instructions&hidepanel=true&from=vlibrary.html

Lesson 2: Fractions

http://nlvm.usu.edu/en/nav/frames_asid_102_g_1_t_1.html?from=topic_t_1.html

http://illuminations.nctm.org/ActivityDetail.aspx?ID=45

http://nlvm.usu.edu/en/nav/frames_asid_159_g_2_t_1.html

Grade VIII

Lesson 1a: Quadrilaterals

http: / /mste.illinois.edu/m2t2/geometry/quads.html

Lesson 1b: Nets

http://www.mathsnet.net/geometry/solid/nets.html

Lesson 2: Linear Equations

http://www.waldomaths.com/Linear2NLW.jsp

http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/maths/algebra/graphsact.shtml

Lesson 3: TIME DISTANCE

http://mathdemos.gcsu.edu/mathdemos/jogger/jogger.html

Appendix 2: References

Hannafin, R. D., Burruss, J. D., & Little, C. (2001). Learning With Dynamic Geometry Programs: Perspectives of Teachers and Learners. The Journal of Educational Research, 94(3), 132-144.

Hazzan, O. (2002/2003). Prospective High School Mathematics Teachers’ Attitudes toward Integrating Computers in Their Future Teaching. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 35(2), 213-225.

Tall, D. (2003). Using Technology to Support an Embodied Approach to Learning Concepts in Mathematics. In L. M. Carvalho & L. C. Guimarães (Eds.), História e Tecnologia no Ensino da Matemática (Vol. 1, pp. 1-28). Rio de Janeiro, Brasil. Retrieved 31-Aug-2009 from http://www.warwick.ac.uk/staff/David.Tall/pdfs/dot2003a-rio-plenary.pdf

Authentic Assessment of Marketing Projects

2009-07-04T17:02:00.000-07:00

Background
For the assessment tool I have outlined, I have considered students in India undertaking a Post Graduate Diploma in Management- which is a two years- full-time course, each year comprising 3 terms. Such course is recognized by AICTE (All India Council for Technical Education)
The key motivation for students in undertaking this course is to acquire a diploma in business, preparing themselves for entrepreneurship or employment opportunities in Indian and multinational companies.

Assessment instrument
Rather than a single project for the entire term, 2 or 3 group projects, each with increasing levels of complexity, is more appropriate for project based learning and assessment.

Group Project 1
A group of students to identify a brand they will represent within a given product category and build a marketing strategy for it. Deliverables include a written report and a presentation for the group, an individual critical reflection and peer assessment. (Weight: 40%)

Group Project 2
A group of students to select a marketing problem from the options provided. Deliverables include a written report and a presentation for the group, an individual critical reflection and peer assessment. (Weight: 60%)

Instructions for Students

Each student will submit two projects as a member of a randomly assigned group.

1. Each project will include

Submission of written report not exceeding 3000 words excluding appendices such as tables or charts.
A 25 minute presentation to peers and the examiner. Presentation should be about 20-25 slides to ensure completion in the time allotted.
The report and the presentation must clearly identify the students who contributed to that project on the cover page
Presentation will be followed by a Q&A

Submissions are to be made using a web-based system/ email

2. After the completion of the project and presentation, each student must submit one page critical reflection that must:

Relate theoretical concepts covered in the classroom to applications on the project
Interpret the experiences associated with working in the group: how challenges were met and problems were resolved
How any of their assumptions have changed

3. Students must also submit self and peer assessment using a rubric that is made available to them, identifying their own contribution to the project and that of their team members.

4. As there is substantial weightage for the group projects, success is a function of teamwork and cooperation.

5. Timeline: An extension of not more than 2 days will be allowed to the groups to submit the project reports.

6. Access to software: Students are free to use software of their choice for spreadsheets, word processing and presentation so long as the files are compatible with Microsoft Office. If software is required for data analysis, students may access SPSS software installed on the computers in the college laboratory.

7. Internet access from college premises is permitted on all days including Sundays and public holidays from 7:00 am to 9:00 pm.

8. Students are not expected to use any external resources to conduct fieldwork or provide incentives to participants in any research. In case their project demands telephone interviews, visits to business locations or retail stores, students are expected to conduct it personally and at their own expense.

9. Students are free to raise questions pertaining to their projects in the classroom or via a discussion forum to ensure transparency and commonly asked questions can be answered efficiently.

10. Plagiarism of any kind will be strictly dealt with. Disciplinary action may be taken at anytime even after the results have been reported or the degree has been awarded.

Instructions to the examiner

Projects must be assigned to groups of 4/5 students each.
Projects must be authentic, reflecting issues that practitioners of marketing face in the current environment
The projects must commence after the key marketing concepts are discussed in the classroom.
Each member of the team must be involved in either making the presentation or fielding the questions from the examiner. The examiner will randomly assign 2 group members to do the presentation while the rest will respond to the questions at the end of the presentation.
All members of the group will receive the same number of marks for the presentation and the report. However, the overall grading will be influenced by peer assessment and critical reflection.
Other students attending the presentation may ask questions but these have to be routed through and moderated by the examiner who must ensure that questions asked are appropriate and relevant.
Examiner must look for consistency in the peer assessments done by group members. Any doubts on individual contribution should be clarified prior to assessment.
Samples of projects and critical reflection are to be made available to the students.
The assessment rubrics are to be shared with the students at the beginning of the term.
If a report is suspected not to be original work and/ or references to content that is reproduced from elsewhere are missing, it must be checked for plagiarism. Marks may be deducted if a match of 25-40% is identified. If it exceeds 40%, the group receives no marks for the report and the incident is reported in the student records.

Assessment Feedback
Students must be given feedback on

Theoretical concepts, analytical techniques not taken into account- if any
Depth of research conducted/ needs identified to understand the problem
Feasibility of implementation of suggested solutions
Improvements that can be made to the report writing, presentation skills and managing the Q&A sessions
Collaborative efforts of the group

Project Assessment Rubric

http://www.scribd.com/doc/17108622/Assessment-of-Marketing-Projects-Rubric-Milind-Sattur

Educational justification for authentic assessment

There is not much focus on formative assessment because of lack of time and continuity as the various subjects are taught by specialists and the contact may not extend beyond a trimester.

To be adequate, comprehensive and authentic, assessment should consist of tasks which are representative of the ‘knowledge, skills and strategies needed for the activity or domain being tested’ (Fredericksen & Collins 1989) cited in Pitman (1999). The holistic, competency based assessment is designed keeping in mind the learning objectives and expected learning outcomes.

Learning Objectives
The focus is on acquiring knowledge about the different components of marketing such as product offering and life cycle, communication, pricing and distribution in the context of current business environment in India with emphasis on case studies and projects.

Expected learning outcomes
On completion of this course, students will have an understanding of the marketing management process. Students should be able to personally construct and evaluate a marketing plan created by others, ascertain reliability of data sources used for consumer understanding and market intelligence, justify the plan suggested and define criteria for measurement of success of the proposed marketing strategy.

Ensuring authenticity
As we are dealing with students who have already completed 3 or 4 years of University level education and possibly have some work experience, the focus is on providing learning outcomes that are relevant to employability and entrepreneurship. Brogan (2006) highlights how project based learning in groups is appropriate from the employability perspective.

To ensure a high degree of authenticity, project based learning (PBL) and assessment is recommended for a substantial weight of assessments as it

Allows students to create a product and demonstrate learning
Reflects real work situation where
They would be expected to do both-collaborate and demonstrate individual competence
Present their work to others to seek support or approval
Is relevant in an adult learning
Focuses on improving problem solving capabilities

Authentic assessment has a positive impact on student motivation to learn and students are able to see its relevance to their future professional lives. (Gulikers, Bastiaens & Kirschner, 2004).

Most teaching staff at such institutions being from the marketing industry, are well-equipped to construct and scaffold real-life projects, provide real life examples in classroom discussions on how marketing plans were created and implemented, what were the hurdles- in terms of information and resources and how those were resolved and the end results. Effectively- projects become central to both learning and assessment and students are able to connect between theory and practice. On some occasions, there are opportunities to even implement the projects in real-life at least in part, if not in entirety.

The group formation is also randomized as professional life does not always offer you opportunities to work with like-minded people. This suggestion of randomizing groups comes from professionals who experienced that inability to work with people of different attitudes and values can have a negative impact on the success of a project.

The two projects are sequenced such that the first one is well-structured and is limited to one product category. While this limits the choice, students will be able to appreciate how they view the brand they represent and how their competition views them. The second project is somewhat ill-structured and also allows some flexibility in terms of choice so that students can choose a project that fits best with their interests or employment objectives.

Grading with rubrics within a marketing course helps students clearly identify the different aspects of project work and is what is expected of them. (Amantea, 2004)

Critical reflection

According to Catterall, Maclaran, and Stevens (2002), in group projects, students need to reflect upon the impact of interpersonal factors, differing agendas of team members, compromises, leadership battles, hurdles encountered and resolved. They also need to identify themselves in a wider economic, political, cultural and social environment.

The rationale for inclusion of critical reflection to the project work is four-fold:

Transfer of learning from the classroom to the real world
Bring students to realization that decision making and events occur in a socio-political context and that individual perspectives can be very different
Making students aware of why they perceive, think, feel or act in the way they do
Assess their own contribution to the group projects

Validity

Face validity
The project based learning and assessment has face validity because the objective is to assess students on their ability to apply concepts covered in the classroom on real-life marketing problems. Further, in their professional lives, the management students would be expected to collaborate and work with others. The assessment is structured using a clearly defined project brief, timeline and assessment rubric, yet giving some autonomy to students.

Content validity
The projects are defined by experienced marketing professionals, ensuring that the content is relevant and current. They cover the expected learning outcomes as students will be tested on their ability to create and evaluate marketing strategy and their ability to communicate the same via a report and presentation, as they would, in a working environment.

Construct validity
In an authentic assessment construct validity is very important. That is, the assessment task must assess problems encountered in the real world using criteria that would also be encountered in real-life (Gulikers, Bastiaens & Kirschner, 2004).

The rubric for project assessment helps assess the students not only on the final product but also the process– the research needs identified, data gathered, understanding of the consumer and the competitive environment demonstrated.

Predictive validity
As the projects reflect real business problems, the assessment does reflect future performance in a working environment (Moskal and Leydens, 2000).

"Students taught with a more progressive, open, project-based model developed more flexible and useful forms of knowledge and were able to use this knowledge in a range of settings." (Boaler, 1998a) cited in Thomas (2000)

The project rubric also covers graduate attributes such as presentation skills and managing questions.

Reliability
The projects are assessed using a rubric that takes into account the report, presentation and the critical reflection. Under each of these areas are specific criteria clearly defined to make assessment as reliable as possible and minimize subjectivity. While subjectivity cannot be fully eliminated, moderation is recommended for the project reports to ensure inter-examiner consistency.

The rubric may also be pre-tested for consistency with 3-5 examiners who are given the same project reports and rubric before the actual assessment is commenced.

The student/ group performance across the two projects must be compared for consistency and to see if differences can be explained. In an ideal situation, we should expect an improvement in performance from the first to the second project.

Fairness
Adequate choice is given for the second project so that groups can identify a context that is of interest to them. The rubric is shared with the students at the beginning of the term.

Allowing students to make use of open source/ free software and access to resources such as internet and the library ensures fairness.

By assigning a minimum score for critical reflection and peer assessment, we can ensure that a student who has contributed more to the project or demonstrates learning/ application of theory to practice fares better on the assessment. It is important to allow for individual’s accountability to the group (Newhouse-Maiden and de Jong, 2004)

The projects are checked for plagiarism minimizing instances of cheating.

Reporting and Feedback

Meaningful feedback to the students at the end of every assessment is vital as the goal is not just completion of the project but to ensure that relevant learning happens along the way. The project rubric allows for identification of specific issues / subject areas to provide feedback. E.g.” Student demonstrates a deep understanding of the competitive environment and can recommend appropriate marketing strategy. He/ she needs to improve on managing questions from audience. He/ She must focus on improving understanding of pricing strategy”

The weight for different components of assessment is increased gradually providing the learner an opportunity to reflect and better their performance.

The assessment will also be meaningful to potential employers who may choose to review the projects.

Sample Project briefs

Marketing Strategy Project Brief: Project 1 (40%)
Choose a brand in the detergent category from the list below

Ariel
Tide
Surf Excel
Nirma
Henko
Mr.White
Bang
Vanish
Wheel
Rin

No two groups can choose the same brand.

Demonstrate an understanding of the brand and it’s competitive environment
What do you think are the key issues for the brand today, at what stage is it in the product life cycle
Develop a marketing strategy for 2010, highlighting the changes that you would do to the marketing mix- if any (Product offering, Distribution, Pricing and Advertising & Promotion)

The group must submit the project report to within 15 working days followed by a presentation in the subsequent week. After the completion of the project and presentation, each student must submit one page critical reflection that covers:

A brief description of the key tasks he/ she performed on the project
Relate theoretical concepts covered in the classroom/ study material to applications on the project
Interpret the experiences associated with working in the group: how challenges were met and problems were resolved
Personal goals for improvement – if any

Sample Project Brief: Project 2 (60%)
Select one of the options below.

Option 1
Identify a product or a service category that currently does not exist in India. Develop a strategy to launch it in India.

Describe the product or service category
Demonstrate the relevance of the product or the service to the Indian market
Identify and describe the target segment
Strategy for launch of the product including advertising and promotion
Sales strategy
Forecast of sales/ subscriptions for the next 3 years and provide rationale for the forecast
Identify metrics that will determine a successful launch

Option 2
You are employed with a leading telecom operator and seek to increase revenue by offering value added services targeted to rural India.

Describe the service offering
Describe the target segment
Demonstrate the relevance of the product or the service to the rural Indian market
Strategy for launch of the product including advertising and promotion
Strategy to build the subscriber base
Forecast of subscriptions for the next 3 years and provide rationale for the forecast
Identify metrics that will determine a successful launch

Option 3
You are responsible for marketing a premium airline brand. With the economic downturn, your company decides to launch a budget airline with fares that are 40% lower than that of the existing brand. You are now responsible for marketing both the brands but have to ensure that cannibalization of the premium airline brand is to the minimum. How would you differentiate between the two in terms of:

Target segments
Service offerings
Pricing
Advertising and promotion strategy
Identify metrics that will determine the success of the marketing plan.

The group must submit the project report to within 20 working days followed by a presentation in the subsequent week. After the completion of the project and presentation, each student must submit one page critical reflection that covers:

A brief description of the key tasks he/ she performed on the project
Relate theoretical concepts covered in the classroom/ study material to applications on the project
Interpret the experiences associated with working in the group: how challenges were met and problems were resolved
Personal goals for improvement – if any

References

Amantea, C. A. (2004). Using Rubrics To Create And Evaluate Student Projects In A Marketing Course. Journal of College Teaching & Learning, 1(4), 23-28.

Brogan, M. (2006). What you do first is get them into groups": project-based learning and teaching of employability skills. Fine Print, 29(2), 11-16.

Catterall, M., Maclaran, P., & Stevens, L. (2002). Critical reflection in the marketing curriculum. Journal of Marketing Education, 24(3), 184-192.

Forehand, M. (2005). Bloom's taxonomy: Original and revised. In M. Orey (Ed.), Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching and technology. Retrieved 27 May 2009, from http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/

Gulikers, J. T. M., Bastiaens, T. J., & Kirschner, P. A. (2004, June 23-25). Perceptions of authentic assessment- Five dimensions of authenticity. Paper presented at the Second biannual joint Northumbria/EARLI SIG assessment, Bergen.

Kotler, P. (1999). Marketing Management – The Millennium Edition (10th Edition ed.): Prentice Hall of India Private Limited.

Newhouse-Maiden, L., & Jong, T. d. (2004). Assessment for learning: Some insights from collaboratively constructing a rubric with post graduate education students Paper presented at the 13th Annual Teaching Learning Forum, 9-10 Februrary 2004, Perth: Murdoch University.

Pitman, J. A., O’Brien, J. E., & McCollow, J. E. (1999, May 1999). High-Quality Assessment: We are what we believe and do. Paper presented at the IAEA Conference, Bled, Slovenia.

Thomas, J. W. (2000). A review of research on Project-Based Learning. Retrieved May 10, 2009, from http://www.bie.org/index.php/site/RE/pbl_research/29

Thomas, R. E. (1997). Problem-based learning: measurable outcomes. Medical Education, 31, 320-329.

Williams, J. B., & Wong, A. (2009). The efficacy of final examinations: A comparative study of closed-book, invigilated exams and open-book, open-web exams. British Journal of Educational Technology, 40(2), 227–236.

Wolf, P. (n.d.). Transformational learning and critical reflection. Retrieved 17 May, 2009, from http://www.wlu.ca/documents/20396/Critical_reflection_-_handout.pdf

Assessing participation in online discussion groups

2009-07-03T20:44:00.000-07:00

Background
How does the formal online education environment differ from a traditional classroom environment? Should participation in online discussion groups be always assessed as a rule? Or should it be assessed only in certain situations? If participation in online discussion forums is assessed, what should we measure? This paper seeks to address these questions.

The comments here are in the context of education that is delivered entirely online and dealing with students with over 12 years of education. This paper does not touch upon the issue of identity which is inherent in any exclusively online learning environment.

Comparing the classroom and the online learning environment

The teacher, being physically present in the classroom, is in a position to know if students are following what is being discussed and assess the participation of individual students. While classroom participation is sometimes assessed, it is not mandatory and usually not a part of a summative- end of the year assessment. Formative assessment of classroom participation can provide valuable feedback to the student leading to a positive impact on the end of the year assessment.

The formal online learning environment is different. The teacher and participating students have very little or no face to face contact. The online discussion groups are one way of knowing the extent of student understanding (without having to wait until the assignments are submitted), providing scaffolding and progressively guiding students towards the expected learning outcomes. Given the commitment to flexibility of study (and to some extent assessment) schedule that online learning models offer and geographical, cultural and time differences, how do you encourage participation in online discussion groups (especially in an asynchronous discussion)? Assigning a certain proportion of marks for participation seems to be a popular strategy (Palmer, Holt and Bray, 2008). However, is it relevant for the end of the course/ summative assessment? Is it authentic, reflecting real-life conditions that have meaning for the learner? Is such an assessment valid and reliable?

Relevance of Online discussion groups

The interaction between student peers and of students with the teachers is vital to learning. At a primary level, the online discussion groups serve as a means for teachers to determine student progress in order to make any formative assessment and help them know when to move on to the next topic.

More importantly, research indicates that asynchronous discussions in an online learning environment contribute to learning. Further, learning that occurs in such a community is situated and the learning process and outcomes are shared across the learners (Han and Hill, 2007).

It is not delivery of content via online that makes the difference- it’s the scaffolding and the overall student experience (McKey, 2000). A testament to this would be in the fact that MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) offers most of its course content online and free! In the absence of a classroom, the online discussion area becomes a central place for testing of ideas, expression of views and debate. It provides students an opportunity to reflect on what they have learned and express themselves.

“Active learning is linked to students’ ability to apply knowledge to new contexts” (Bransford, Brown, and Cocking, 2000) cited in Craven and Hogan (2001) (p.37).

The sharing of information and different perspectives in the online discussion groups leading to co-construction of contextual knowledge that occurs is what makes it valuable. They also provide a permanent record of student contribution to the collaborative process.

Authenticity, Reliability and Validity of assessment

First, let’s identify factors that do not favor formal assessment of participation in online discussion groups.

Validity of assessment
For assessment of subject knowledge, compared to the traditional and accepted formats such as cloze tests, short answers or essays or even oral examinations, participation in discussion forums demand a different set of skills. Students not familiar or comfortable with such a format will clearly be at a disadvantage if they are assessed for subject knowledge based on their participation in online discussion groups. Further, the assessor does not have complete control over the flow and the scope of the discussion, affecting face validity.

Impact of assessment on student behavior in the discussion groups

Enforcing assessment does ensure participation but research indicates that it has some unfavorable impact on participation. Palmer et al. (2008) highlight how assessment of participation in online discussion groups is more like an imposed exercise where students are most likely to participate only to meet the assessment criteria. Not being the first one to post a comment or raise a pertinent question can impact student motivation levels. “Other attempts to integrate computer mediated discussion with traditional classroom or working environments have shown that when participation is required, many users invariably respond with anxiety and resistance” (Komsky 1991; Quinn et al. 1983) cited in Althaus (1996) (p.17).

Authenticity of assessment

Student & Teacher perceptions
Interestingly, Gulikers, Bastiaens and Kirschner (2004) report that for authentic assessment, the social context is perceived as the least important by both teachers and students.

Learning styles
Learners differ in terms of strategies they adopt. While some may prefer a collaborative approach, working with peers, others may choose to study independently.

Avenues for learning
Online discussion groups not the only avenue for learning as in today’s environment as various other avenues are available:Course materials, Text books, journals or audio-visual materials, The internet, Search engines have made it very easy to access information from various websites, Wikis, free papers/white papers, blogs and Knowledge sharing and professional networks - coming from varied sources, experienced and influential people, these can make a significant contribution to learning.
Focus
Though all students are studying the same subject, chances are that the individual focus areas could be very different, leading to limited participation on some topics and extensive on others (Murphy and Jerome, 2005).
Cultural differences
In an online education environment, it is quite likely that students come from varied socio-cultural backgrounds. Not all students would be comfortable to open debate. Some would be afraid to express themselves with the fear of saying something inappropriate while others may be more vocal and claim leadership status in conversations.

Reliability of assessment
The reliability of such as assessment is impacted by a variety of factors:

Assessment of a student may be influenced by not just his/ her own participation but of how others respond to his/ her comments. Assessing an individual student’s effort in a group activity is difficult.
The sequence in which students will respond to a discussion topic is purely random and the first one to post a response to a new discussion topic is not necessarily the most knowledgeable about the topic. Further, a student taking time to reflect and give a more considered response may not have the opportunity to express himself appropriately.

Individual students representing a minority (in terms of race/ nationality/ language/ age) may either inadvertently or consciously get excluded from conversations
Determining originality of comments made in discussion groups is not easy and unlike in an essay, references may not always be provided
Inter-assessor consistency is also an issue to be considered and moderation means more resources.

Suggested action

Now, let’s identify conditions under which formal assessment of participation in online discussion groups is relevant.

Factors favoring assessment
Higher engagement
Research (Palmer et al. 2008) indicates that extent of participation in online discussion posts not only correlates but also impact success in summative assessments because of the higher engagement with the course materials. Ramos and Yudko (2006) differ on this, demonstrating that it is hits (frequency with which the content pages on the class site were viewed) and not posts that is a good predictor. What is clear is that the extent of engagement through the online environment has a positive impact on the summative assessments and discussion groups are a good way of managing that. For discussion boards to be successful, the topics need to be controversial and thought provoking, promoting higher-level thinking and active discussion (Kay, 2006).

Triangulation
Incorporating participation on online discussion groups as a component of assessment in addition to written tests, practical or oral examinations would allow for triangulation.
Using a combination of different assessment methods gives a better picture of students’ progress/ learning rather than a single end-of-the course assessment.

Planning for Assessment
Formative assessment of participation in online discussion groups is recommended as it is an essential element in the teaching – learning process: giving feedback to students and motivating them. It is more relevant in distance learning where isolation can have negative impact. The focus of assessment must be to ensure high consequential validity- a positive backwash effect on learning (Boud, 1995).

The challenge is in getting the students to engage in meaningful discussion, knowledge building without the fear of being assessed. Some suggestions are listed here:

Better scaffolding/ prompts
Better navigation of discussion posts
Search within discussion posts
Borrowing from the success of social networks: Email or message alerts on for new questions and responses to questions posted by a particular student or on a particular topic, enforcing students to update “status” at least once every week. For example: “Reading paper by Gulikers et al. on authentic assessment” or “Starting my assignment 1 on assessing participation…” This would be equivalent of attendance/ presence in a classroom.

To ensure validity of a summative assessment, the first step is to determine how critical the discussion is to the achievement of the learning objectives. Assessment of participation in online discussions should be considered only if student success in future professional or educational lives is believed to be impacted by their

Ability to collaborate and work with others (especially people from different countries/ cultures/ disciplines and in a virtual environment). With increasing globalization and dependence on web-based communication (emails, instant messengers and virtual meetings) there is merit in assessing it in certain situations.
Ability to think critically and reflect upon own learning and that shared by others

It should be undertaken only when:

The instructional design is in alignment with such an assessment
It does not involve high stakes where the motivation to compete is higher than that to collaborate- (e.g. weightage should not exceed 10%)
Valid and reliable criteria for assessment can be established and students are made aware of what is being assessed

Althaus (1996) suggests another approach that is worth considering:
On components of assessment that evaluate critical thinking, problem solving or knowledge construction, the students be given a choice between participation in an online discussion forum and writing a paper. However, making assessments between such groups of students comparable can be difficult. To be fair, the assessment rubric should primarily look for evidence of critical thinking, quality of response (knowledge, comprehension, application and analysis), claims made and evidence provided rather than extent of participation in terms of number, frequency or length of posts.

While it is important that the posts are concise, a limit on maximum number of words as an assessment criterion can be constraining. Hence, this should not be included as a criterion but students should be provided guidelines on the length of a post.

Ensuring adequacy of resources
The final but equally important check before deciding on assessment of participation in online discussion groups is the availability of adequate resources including for moderation. It is a serious decision because it is time intensive and demands immediacy. There is little relevance in a response that comes a week later as by then, the student who posted the question or a response has possibly moved to some other topic or others have responded, leading the conversation to a different level. The teacher not only has to assess student participation but also ensure timely scaffolding in terms of providing triggers that stimulate discussion and debate, moderation and closure of open issues.

References

Althaus, S. (1996, Aug 29 - Sep 1). Computer-Mediated Communication in the University Classroom: An experiment with online discussions. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting: American Political Science Association, San Francisco.

Boud, D. (1995). Assessment and learning: contradictory or complementary? In P. Knight (Ed.), Assessment for Learning in Higher Education (pp. 35-48): Kogan Page.

Craven-III, J. A., & Hogan, T. (2001). Assessing student participation in the classroom. Science Scope.

Edelstein, S., & Edwards, J. (2002). If You Build It, They Will Come: Building Learning Communities Through Threaded Discussions. Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration, V(I).

Gulikers, J. T. M., Bastiaens, T. J., & Kirschner, P. A. (2004, June 23-25). Perceptions of authentic assessment- Five dimensions of authenticity. Paper presented at the Second biannual joint Northumbria/EARLI SIG assessment, Bergen.

Han, S. Y., & Hill, J. R. (2007). Collaborate to learn, learn to collaborate: Examining the roles of context, community and cognition in an asynchronous discussion. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 36(1), 89-123.

Kay, R. H. (2006). Developing a comprehensive metric for assessing discussion board effectiveness. British Journal of Educational Technology, 37(5), 761–783.

McKey, P. (1999, 5-8 December). The total student experience. Paper presented at the ASCILITE 99, Australia.

Meyer, K. A. (2004). Evaluating online discussions: Four different frames of analysis. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 8(2), 101-114.

Murphy, E., & Jerome, T. (2005). Assessing students’ contributions to online asychronous discussions in university-level courses. E-Journal of Instructional Science and Technology (e-JIST), 8(1).

Palmer, S., Holt, D., & Bray, S. (2008). Does the discussion help? The impact of a formally assessed online discussion on final student results. British Journal of Educational Technology, 39(5), 847-858.

Ramos, C., & Yudko, E. (2006). “Hits” (not “Discussion Posts”) predict student success in online courses: A double cross-validation study. Computers & Education, 50(4), 1174–1182.

Roblyer, M. D., & Ekhaml, L. (2000, June 7-9). How interactive are YOUR distance Courses? A rubric for assessing interaction in distance learning. Paper presented at the DLA 2000, Callaway, Georgia.

Integrating ICT in Education: On a Road With no U- Turn

2009-01-11T03:49:00.000-08:00

Introduction
The scope of computing in education is really vast. There are a number of perspectives to take into account. At the end of the course, I believe that techno-optimism is the way to go- but not with blind faith. There are a number of pitfalls along the way and educational institutions and even government institutions (National Grid for Learning, UK) have been baffled when the returns on ICT investment are poor (Nichol and Watson, 2003).

I am convinced that the benefits of ICT integration outweigh the drawbacks and the concerns can be addressed or at least alleviated.

Embracing ICT in education is like starting on a journey with no U-turn as predicting the future is not easy. The pace of change accelerates and with it brings changes that that will have a dramatic impact on our lives. Nobody is immune. Teachers and students have to learn to understand the changing environments and adapt to it.

The experiences that students today undergo are richer, complex and varied. When I was a student, I had finished all my primary schooling even before I had a black and white TV at home. Radio and audio cassette players were the only other “gadgets” I had exposure to. Students today have exposure to manifold devices: Television, HD Television, Cable and Satellite TV, Free terrestrial TV, personal computers, Internet, PDAs, Mobile phones, portable games, game consoles, online multiplayer games, MP3, audio-visual projectors, Interactive whiteboards and multimedia DVDs.
The Internet is possibly the one factor that has irreversibly changed our lives on earth. It has brought us into contact with people and resources in a way that we would have never imagined. High speed internet has expanded the scope of exchange from plain text to audio and video as well. Email, instant messenger, SMS, MMS, voice message, video chat, voice and video conference, asynchronous discussion and online collaboration tools (concept maps, wikis, and Google docs), social and professional networks have all changed the way we are expected to communicate and collaborate in our academic and professional lives.

“Whatever way we slice it, it's a different world
• Things have fundamentally & irrevocably changed
• It’s not just change today and status quo tomorrow
• It's constant, relentless change today and change tomorrow - change forever”
(Jukes and McCain, n.d.)

The urgency

The world around us is changing rapidly and by the time students finish schooling, it would have changed even further.

Take a look at the jobs that will be in demand by 2020 (Canton, 2007, p111):

Knowledge management advisors
Nano-bio entrepreneurs
Artists, Writers, Poets
On demand supply-chain designers
Global headhunters

Taking in such information, the education system has to be restructured to ensure that there is a match between industry needs and 10-15 years down the line and what is taught in the school today.

“I skate to where the puck is going to be, not to where it has been.” Wayne Gretzky (Canadian professional ice hockey player)

ICT Literacy in a Knowledge Society
ICT literacy is essential to ensure that they are employable and can function in a knowledge society. The computer can be used either as a tool to enhance productivity, as a resource to learn something or as a “Tutee” and can be taught to do something - manipulate and process data to obtain the desired result.

This has evolved further. Smaller devices like PDAs and mobile phones allow you to store files, use productivity tools like spreadsheets and word processors and access the internet. Even secure banking transactions can be done over mobile phones. These devices only differ in the user interface they offer.

I therefore prefer to use the phrase ICT literacy instead of computer literacy and define it as done by ETS (Educational Testing Service) in Digital Transformation, A Framework for ICT Literacy (2002, p2.):

“ICT literacy is using digital technology, communications tools, and/or networks to access, manage, integrate, evaluate, and create information in order to function in a knowledge society”.
This moves the emphasis from the device and places it on an individual’s ability.

ICT Implementation
Involving everybody
ICT integration is not a unilateral policy designed or implemented by a single entity. The interests of school administration, teachers, parents, students, government and businesses must be represented in the framing and implementation of policies.

How does the role of the teacher change?
The computer is another tool, just like pen, paper or a calculator. It changes how information is organized and accessed. Setting up a computer lab or providing students with laptops is only a starting point. It’s what you do with them and what you put in them that make the difference.

Computers have not yet transformed the teaching practices of a majority of teachers (Becker, 2000; Zhao, Pugh, Sheldon and Byers, 2002). Conditions that are favorable for successful integration of ICT are:
-Teachers’ motivation and comfort with the use of computers
-Easy access to computers or other ICT resources for classroom activities
-Teachers’ adoption of student centered, constructivist pedagogy
-A supportive school culture (administration and peers) and
- The relevance of ICT to the topic being taught
Some examples:
-Electronic journals that allow recording of laboratory work in the form of images and video instead of plain hand-written journals (Bell, Park and Toti, 2004)
-Use of videos to learn oral history, making it a more personal experience and something that can be shared with others- effectively becoming creators of content (Levin, 2003)
-Project based learning where ICT enables students to learn using real-life examples, even for subjects such as mathematics, which may seem to be irrelevant to future employment (Levert, 2003)

Education is also a business and there will be hardware and software manufacturers, activists, politicians and parents who will exert their influence on the implementation of ICT in the classroom. It is the responsibility of the teacher to evaluate the options and choose an ICT solution that contributes most to meaningful constructivist learning.

Changes for a student
What has to change for a student is not just the way he/ she studies it but also how he/ she is assessed. Assessments that focus more on memory recall are not relevant any longer as the body of knowledge has multiplied in the past few years. Accessing large volumes of information/ data at high speed has become very easy. The student skill set has to therefore move on to skimming and scanning the large volume of information, critically evaluating it for currency, relevance and authenticity and using it to find solutions.

Students are not passive participants- they have the potential to co-create content that is authentic and powerful to be shared with people all over the world. (Levin, 2003)

Students must learn to use both strategies- competition and collaboration, depending on what is most appropriate in a given situation. In an ICT integrated environment, this extends to dealing with people they may know only in an online environment. Online communication skills therefore become very important.

Managing resources

In an environment where getting budgets for ICT implementation are not easy to come by, differentiating between needs and wants is important (Kozma, 2003). Not all applications need the fastest processors, high resolution monitors, high speed broadband internet or Wi-Fi connection or expensive software. Even older technologies like radio and terrestrial TV can offer low-cost alternative solutions. A number of resources are available for free and some software is available at subsidized rates for educational institutions.

Developing nations- different solutions for a different world
India is one of the best examples of the digital divide. At one end, India has made great progress in the areas of IT, space exploration and nuclear technology, and has world class engineering and business schools. At the other end, it has inadequate number of teachers, little teacher training and poor basic school infrastructure, especially in semi-urban and rural areas.

The ICT and the Telecom sectors (services) have made a huge contribution to the GDP growth, making India among the ten fastest growing economies in the world. However, it is only in recent years that application of ICT education has received attention. Catching up with the developed nations without spending huge sums of money means identifying low cost, innovative solutions that reach geographically dispersed students living in rural areas and overcoming barriers due to socioeconomic conditions, language and gender.

Conclusion
Meaningful ICT integration is a change beyond simple amplification of current practices in schools. The ultimate goal of school and university education should be where students, depending on their abilities and interests, can study at a place of their choice , be assessed at a pace they choose to and have the opportunity to discuss issues with teachers and students across the world. ICT can be the enabler of such an environment. Having set off on a road with no U-turn, this goal will be reached. What we don’t know is the distance and the time it will take.

References
Digital Transformation- A Framework for ICT Literacy. (2002). Retrieved 06 Nov, from http://www.ets.org/research/researcher/ICT-REPORT.html

Becker, H. J. (2000). Findings from the teaching, learning, and computing survey: Is Larry Cuban right? Paper presented at the School Technology Leadership Conference of The Council of Chief State School Officers, Washington D.C. Retrieved 31 May, 2004, from http://www.crito.uci.edu/tlc/findings/ccsso.pdf

Bell, R. L., Park, J. C., & Doug Toti. (2004). Digital images in the science classroom. Learning and Leading with Technology, 31(8), 26-28.

Bharadwaj, V. (2005). Pilot Testing of Performance Indicators for Information & Communication Technology (ICT) in Education in India. Retrieved 23 Aug, 2008 from http://www.vivekbharadwaj.in/researchstudies_1.html

Canton, J. (2007). The Extreme Future: Plume. ISBN: 978-0-452-28866-9.

Jukes, I., & McCain, T. (n.d.). Welcome to the wired world. Retrieved 6 Nov, 2008, from http://www.tcpd.org/McCain/Handouts/Wired.pdf

Kozma, R. B. (2003). Global Perspectives- Innovative Technology Integration Practices from Around the World. Learning and Leading with Technology, 31(2), 6-9, 52-54.

Levert, B. (2003-04). We're Poppin for Math. Learning and Leading with Technology, 31(4), 20-23.

Levin, H. (2003). Making History Come Alive. Learning and Leading with Technology, 31(3), 22-27.

Nichol, J., & Watson, K. (2003). Editorial: Rhetoric and reality—the present and future of ICT in education. British Journal of Educational Technology, 34(2), 131-136.

Taylor, R. P. (1980). Introduction. In R. P. Taylor (Ed.), The computer in school: Tutor, tool, tutee (pp. 1-10). New York: Teachers College Press.

Veen, W., & Vrakking, B. (2006). Homo Zappiens- Growing up in a digital age: Network Continuum. ISBN: 1-85539-220-8

Wayne Grtezky, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayne_Gretzky retrieved 06 Nov, 2008

Zhao, Y., Pugh, K., Sheldon, S., & Byers, J. L. (2002). Conditions for Classroom Technology Innovations. Teachers College Record, 104(3), 482-515.

Overcoming Language Barriers in Use of ICT in Developing Nations

2009-01-11T03:33:00.000-08:00

Internet beyond English language

There is no doubt that English is the most common language on the internet. According to Internet World Stats report, the top three languages on the internet are English, Chinese and Spanish. So, all other languages in the world together account for 43.2% of internet usage.

The developing nations are at one end battling poverty reduction initiatives and putting in place or improving basic educational infrastructure at the other end having to catch up with developed nations in the more advanced areas of educational ICT. Creating content in local language is therefore lower on the priority list. Educational content and software are not readily available in local languages. Further, familiarity with English language is even lower among the economically backward classes, widening the digital divide.

Language can therefore become a barrier to e-learning as it limits the ability to use the internet. How can it be overcome? Some countries are faced with a dilemma- focus on teaching the English language so as to encourage ICT usage or invest in creation of educational content, software and technical documentation in local languages. There is a fear that emphasis on English language education can hurt assimilation of local language and cultures among the youth in these countries. Only countries like India and Philippines extensively offer the option of English as a medium of instruction.

I have summarized some successful ICT strategies that focus on the language barrier, as reported by International Telecommunication Union (ICT Success Stories- Digital Education and Learning, 2006):

Initiatives to overcome the language barrier

Let’s explore initiatives that are already undertaken and those that can be to overcome the language barrier:

Access
Reaching people living in remote locations is important as students in such locations are also unlikely to have access to qualified teachers. Radio and Television easily extend reach into rural areas. Among the successful ICT strategies listed earlier, three of them made use of radio. In India, a recently started educational channel delivered direct to home via satellite aims to provide audio in at least 2 local languages in addition to English.

VSAT (Very Small Aperture Terminals), a satellite communication system has been extensively utilized in the education sector in India. It is very useful in connecting remote locations.
To enable access to hardware- Keyboards in local language and software- user interfaces in local language need to be made available. This can pose a problem in some countries. India has over 20 local languages. In Thailand, the situation is more complicated with the Thai language character set requiring 90 different letters on keyboard compared to 66 for English.

Teacher support
Teachers’ inadequate English language competence has been reported as an obstacle to teachers’ learning of ICT according to Grinfields (1999) cited in Pelgrum & Law (2003)
Hence, documentation and training material for use of ICT has to be made available in local languages.

Hiring ICT trainers who can speak two or more languages would definitely benefit educational institutions. Countries that have common languages can pool their resources together. For instance, Tamil is taught in Singapore as well some states in southern India. Mandarin Chinese and Bahasa Malaysia are taught in Singapore and Malaysia. In India, with over 20 official languages, this should easy as people some states are familiar with 2 or more languages in addition to English.

Content
It is important to ensure that all content relevant to education, especially primary education is available local in languages. Most easy to implement, is to digitize local language content that is available in traditional print/ audio or video format and make it accessible.

Increased emphasis on visual elements such as animations, images, 3D environments instead of traditional text will make the content easily portable across different languages and facilitate easy understanding of concepts.

Just as sub-titles are used in movies and television programs, they should be used for educational content such as videos and animations as well.

Wikis can be a great tool to create content in local language. Wikipedia is the best example- in such a short span of time; it has more than 100,000 articles available in 23 languages.

Apart from creation of locally relevant content, translation of English language content into local languages is being done. As this is a tedious process to be implemented manually, machine translation is being made use of.

This first attempts to use machines to translate languages was made in the US in 1954 by collaboration between IBM and Georgetown University. Since then there have been other attempts at it. Google translator is a recent one. Clicking a button on the Google toolbar will allow people to read in English, pages in languages they are not familiar with. Sometime in the future, using instant messengers, we should be able to chat with people who do not speak the same language (as the computer will do the translations on the fly). Machine translations are not perfect but can definitely make the task easier by reducing the human effort.

Countries such as Bangladesh, India and Thailand are actively looking at machine translation to remove the language barrier.

Promoting English language literacy
While this can be definitely seen as controversial in many countries, functional knowledge of the language can go a long way in promoting adoption of ICT in education. Language learners can not only learn to read and write but also to speak. The software can save the conversation as an audio file and compare their pronunciation, with a benchmark and evaluate. Applications that can convert text to speech and speech to text would be extremely valuable.

Technology actually enables preservation of local culture, language and literary knowledge rather than being a threat to it. A good example would be “Te Ara” a national encyclopaedia of New Zealand (http://www.teara.govt.nz/) covering natural environment, history, culture, economy and institutions. It is available in Māori and English and makes extensive use of multimedia content including audio, video and innovative maps (ICT Success Stories- Digital Education and Learning, 2006).

Devices
Delivery should not be limited to the PC platform. Educational content can also be made accessible via portable devices such as PDA and mobile phones. Such services are being developed and tested to be delivered without the use of high-end technologies like Wi-fi and GPRS. For example, a pan-European program supported by the European Commission's Information Society Technologies (IST) programme focuses on delivering educational content to 16-24 year olds (ICT Success Stories- Digital Education and Learning, 2006). It uses themes such as football and music to promote literacy and numeracy. The technology to deliver maths, geography and languages is being developed. Portable platforms such as mobile phones, Wi-fi enabled PDAs allow for personalized delivery and peer-to-peer interaction. These devices are easier to use than a PC.

The services can be advertising supported, reducing the cost to the individual subscriber.

Way forward
In conclusion, the language barrier need not be low in the priority list. Cost effective solutions exist and can be implemented.

Efforts undertaken to overcome the language barrier must be encouraged. Individuals and NGOs (Non-governmental organizations) engaged in making content accessible in languages that may not be commercially viable should be given recognition in the form of awards and funding.

References
International workshop on improving E-Learning policies and programs. (2004, 9-13 Aug). Manila.

ICT Success Stories- Digital Education and Learning. (2006). Retrieved 27 Oct, 2008, from http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict_stories/themes/education.html

Internet world users by language. (2008, 30 June). Retrieved 29 Oct, 2008, from http://www.internetworldstats.com/languages.htm

Farrell, G., & Wachholz, C. (Eds.). (2003). Meta-survey on the use of Technologies in Education in Asia and the Pacific: UNESCO.

Gray, V., Kelly, T., & Minges, M. (2002). Bits and Bahts: Thailand Internet Case Study: International Telecommunication Union Geneva, Switzerland.

Hutchins, J. (2004). The first public demonstration of machine translation: the Georgetown-IBM system, 7th January 1954. Paper presented at the AMTA Conference. Retrieved 31 Oct 2008 from http://www.hutchinsweb.me.uk/GU-IBM-2005.pdf

Och, F. (2005). The machines do the translating. The Official Google Blog, Retrieved 27 Oct, 2008, from http://googleblog.blogspot.com/2005/08/machines-do-translating.html

Pelgrum, W. J., & Law, N. (2003). ICT in education around the world: trends, problems and prospects: UNESCO: International Institute for Education Planning.

Teaching Students to Find the Needle in a Haystack

2009-01-11T03:25:00.000-08:00

Introduction
All leading portals predominantly display internet search tools and these can even be installed on to the toolbars in browsers. All the users have to do is to type in the word and click on the search button. The Oxford English Dictionary and Merriam Webster Collegiate Dictionary now recognize “google” as a verb, meaning “to use the Google search engine to obtain information about (as a person) on the World Wide Web.”

While many of us may walk way with an impression that it is fairly easy to search for information on the internet and this is not something that needs to be formally taught as a part of the school curriculum, Muthukumar, a curriculum designer who focuses on integration of ICT, differs. Given the expansive nature of the web and difficulty in ascertaining the accuracy and reliability of the information available, he advises that information search on the internet is not something that should be treated as commonplace. In a study he undertook as a part of his recent Ph.D. thesis, this was the focus.
Muthukumar asserts that it is not correct to assume that students know how to maximize the information potential of the internet. To be able to efficiently and effectively search for required information on the internet, the student must know how to use the internet search engines, the advanced search options they provide and apply Boolean logic rules. The information search process is also impacted by external factors such as students’ domain knowledge and knowledge about computer systems, such as file formats and country markers.
In the past few years, problem-solving learning activities have becoming increasingly prevalent in educational institutions. Internet-based information searching skills definitely play a critical role in enabling students to seek and apply relevant information to solve given problems.
Working with a hypothesis that there is a need to methodically train students in information search skills using the internet, in 2005 he conducted a study. The study looked at how students engaged in problem solving can be trained in the application of different information searching skills. The study was conducted at a unique institution in Singapore that relies on a problem based learning methodology across all subjects and levels- a perfect setting to measure the impact of internet information searching techniques.

“Information searching skills are non-trivial and complex to be left to be developed intuitively or autonomously by students on their own.”- Kumar

Research Design
This study used both quantitative and qualitative methodologies. The data sources were:
Open ended surveys, students’ documentation, audio recordings of classroom interactions, screen capture of students’ online navigation patterns and reflection journal entries. The design is detailed and complex to be described here but in summary used both well-structured and ill-structured problems and measurements were done before and after intervention. A set of 6 well and ill structured were problems were chosen for the study.

Well-structured problems are bounded by rules, with concepts organized in a predictive/ sequential manner and have singular, convergent solutions. Ill structured problems are open-ended, ambiguous, containing some unknown elements and have divergent/ conflicting solutions. An example of an ill-designed problem:
Space is very limited in Singapore and every square meter is precious.
In order to maximize space, design a 100 storey skyscraper that does
not use lifts, staircases, or escalators

Ill structured problems are relevant because unlike in a traditional educational environment, problems faced in our work environment are likely to be poorly structured, open-ended and multi-disciplinary.

Muthukumar developed and tested a framework that can be used to train students for information search skills in the context of problem solving. The framework enables the educator to provide scaffolding through a four stage model for ill-structured problems. For well-structured problems, stages 1 and 2 are adequate.

Stage 1: Students learn about the use of internet search tools such as search engines, meta-search engines (that search across multiple search engines) and directories.

Stage 2: Students learn to use information search strategies: using multiple search engines, verifying information through cross referencing, searching specific file formats, exact phrases, Boolean operators and key words

Stage 3: Students learn to craft essential questions- questions that invoke curiosity, force evaluation between choices and warrant exploration. Students then develop foundation or subsidiary questions that help them achieve search objectives conveyed by the essential question.

Illustration: Essential question: “Should the wetland areas in the USA be preserved?”
Possible foundation questions: “What is a wetland?”, “What are the reasons for saving wetlands?”, “Why are wetlands being destroyed?”, “Who is destroying wetlands?”, “How many acres of wetlands exist in the USA?”, “At what rate are wetlands being destroyed?” and “What are the best methods for saving wetlands?”

Stage 4: Students learn to develop and organize search keywords, construct a key word concept map.

Quantitative metrics
The students’ navigational pathways in searching for information and solving problem tasks were described in terms of two metrics: Path compactness and Stratum (Rivlin, Botafogo, Shneiderman, 1994). These are mathematically computed indicators of the linearity and connectedness of network-based structures defining users’ online navigational visitations. A high compactness value (1) indicates a navigational style involving easy movement from each node to other nodes within the network structure due to accessing a large number of cross referencing links. A low compactness (0) means little or no access of cross referencing links. Stratum indicates if there is natural/ linear order in which the nodes are visited. The value is highest (1) when the user navigates in a linear sequential fashion and lowest (0) when navigation is iterative or cyclical.

Study limitations
There are limitations to the study, in terms of small sample size (25 students, working in groups of 5) and lack of a control group for comparison. The study had to be conducted within the limits of pre-determined curriculum, limiting the choice of problems that could be administered to the students.

Research findings
Phase I
Preliminary investigation (before intervention) revealed that a majority of the students acknowledged the internet as a vital information provider but only about half the students made a plan when initiating an internet search and only 12% of them made an effort to formulate the keywords for the subject matter being researched. About 60% of the students were either not aware of differences between the different search engines or felt that there were none in terms of their functional attributes. On the positive side, most students were conscious about the authenticity and accuracy of information available and drawbacks of information overload.
When problems are well structured, information needs are limited and awareness of internet search tools and basic searching techniques are adequate. The navigational pattern in internet information search was found to be sequential and deep after some initial trial and error. However, when they are problems are ill-structured, information needs become complex, cross disciplinary and extensive. In such situations, the students’ navigational patterns in internet information search were complex, more iterative and diffused. Students would also redefine search terms frequently.

Phase II- Post intervention
Students appreciated the interventionist training program and felt that it improved their information seeking abilities, made them more confident about seeking and using the internet information, especially in problem based learning environments. Crafting foundation questions and keyword concept mapping were particularly useful in dealing with ill-structured problems. However, students felt the need to develop proficiency in these tasks and hence more training.

The results of the quantitative components of the study also demonstrate that different problem types demand different search capabilities and strategies. There was a significant improvement in efficiency, relevance and depth of the information obtained using the strategies outlined in the framework.

Recommendations
The research findings indicate that internet information search skills need to be systematically and formally taught to enable students to become better problem solvers. I agree with Muthukumar that the suggested framework can be incorporated into ICT training planned for students. While the model has been tested in a polytechnic, problem based learning environment, its application in other environments such as schools and colleges needs further research.
Information literacy also plays a crucial role here as once the search results are obtained, students must be able to evaluate them for relevance, authority, accuracy, currency and objectivity.

References
21st Century Literacies. (2002). Retrieved 25 Oct, 2008, from http://www.kn.pacbell.com/wired/21stcent/information.html
Muthukumar, L. (2008). Information seeking strategies in engaging in problem solving. Unpublished doctoral thesis, Macquarie University, Australia.

Rivlin, E., Botafogo, R., & Shneiderman, B. (1994). Navigating in hyperspace: Designing a structure-based toolbox. Communications of the ACM, 37(2), 87-96.

Barriers to ICT: Teacher Attitude, Beliefs and Motivation

2009-01-11T03:14:00.000-08:00

Background
When barriers to ICT integration in schools are discussed, issues such as access, availability of content, relevance for a subject and computer skills are usually top-of-mind. In this paper, I would like to divert your attention to some intangible factors such as teacher attitude, beliefs and motivation that need to be addressed even before other factors are considered.

In support of my argument, here are some comments made by researchers:

“…ICT integration in education is (therefore) unlikely to succeed unless we understand teachers’ personal educational beliefs and their relationship with teaching practices” (Niederhauser & Stoddart, 2001) cited in Tondeur et al. (2008)

Researchers (Scrimshaw, 2004; van Braak et al., 2004) opine that even though the conditions for successful ICT integration finally appear to be in place – such as access to infrastructure, increased computer skills and sufficient computer training – the implementation of educational computer use has not yet reached a critical level, as cited in Tondeur et al. (2008). Ertmer, (2005) also suggests that additional barriers specifically related to teachers’ educational beliefs, might be at work, as cited in Tondeur et al (2008).

Ertmer (1999) referred to the barriers caused by teachers’ beliefs and attitudes concerning ICT, as second-order barriers. She highlighted that these need to be addressed before other external or first-order barriers are tackled. First-order barriers, such as the lack of access or training are more readily observed and more easily tackled, whereas second-order barriers may require major changes in daily routines and underlying beliefs about effective practice.

Belief in benefits of ICT in education
Many teachers themselves need to be convinced that integration of ICT into the classroom brings benefits. A benchmarking study surveying head teachers and class teachers was conducted in 2006 across 27 countries in Europe to benchmark the access and use of ICT in schools. This recent study indicated that 16% of teachers not using computers in the classroom believe that ICT offers “no or unclear benefits” to students. The study further indicates that there is a correlation between this skepticism and a lack of motivation to use ICT in the classroom with age/ no. of years of teaching experience. Further, a small proportion of teachers are just not interested at all in bringing computers into the classroom because of aversion to change.

A study conducted by Tondeur et al. among 574 primary school teachers in Belgium illustrates how the use of ICT is mediated by teachers’ beliefs about teaching and learning. The study profiles teachers according to their educational beliefs and links it to the type of computer use in the classroom. Based on the teachers’ beliefs, the study defines 4 profiles of teachers: Constructivist & Traditional, Constructivist, Traditional and an “Undefined profile”. The traditional teaching style is teacher-centered while constructivist teaching style is student centered allowing frequent and varied use of technology in the classroom. The table below summarizes the relationship between the teacher profile and reported classroom use of computers.
The authors recommend that teacher professional development must not make any overt attempts to change teachers’ educational beliefs or pressurize them to integrate ICT. The approach must be to showcase successful ICT integration and provide positive reinforcement and support. Older teachers deserve special attention and an orientation into benefits of ICT integration. Aversion to change has to be specially managed. Some schools have invested specifically in training in change management for teachers and school managers. (eg. Malaysia’s Smart School project).

Teacher confidence
Further, not all teachers are confident users of ICT and this affects the lesson conducted in the classroom.

The findings of Becta research (2003) of a sample of 170 teachers, listed “lack of confidence” as one of the key barriers to uptake of ICT in the classroom. Over 21% of the responses were related to confidence issues. The Becta literature review on ‘Barriers to uptake of ICT by teachers’ (2004) illustrates how there are close relationships between the barrier caused by a lack of teacher confidence and several other barriers such as lack of personal access to ICT, lack of competence or technical problems.

Teacher motivation
The ACM model (Access, Competence and Motivation Model proposed by Viherä and Nurmela, 2001) cited in pan-European benchmarking study can be used to explain the propensity to the use of computers and internet by teachers in classroom situations at schools.

Access to technology and associated resources is clearly a precursor for successful integration of ICT in the classrooms. Among teachers who do not use computers at school, access is the biggest problem. However, among those who do use computers at school, the motivation to use computers in the classroom is a cause for concern.

While access and competence are somewhat correlated, motivation (gauged through the attitude that using computers in classrooms results in significant learning benefits) does not show any correlation with the two other variables. Overall, about 24% of the teachers lacked motivation, though they had either competence or access and competence both.

As in any organization, employee motivation is affected by organizational policies; teacher motivation for ICT integration is affected by the school culture and ICT policy. Cuban et al. (2001) cited in Jones (2004), suggest that the school as an institution may in itself be resistant to the kinds of change needed for the successful integration of ICT.

The school management must encourage teachers to adopt ICT and back it up with adequate support in terms of training, equipment and resources. Training teachers cannot be a one-off event covering issues like how to use a particular software/ hardware. It should be in the form of a longer term professional development program. Support can be continued through peer groups that may be ICT enabled and in the form of web sites, discussion groups, and e-mail communities.

The school management and senior staff must clearly demonstrate leadership by example and personal involvement in any new and major ICT initiatives. Encouraging experimentation through incentives is important while at the same time, failure should not be looked down upon. All school policies, internal communication, administration, assessments and maybe even extra-curricular activities must reflect their seriousness about ICT. Hayes (2007) highlights how whole-school approaches have positive effects – the entire school benefits instead of a few individuals, involves all stakeholders in the process of ICT integration and provides an opportunity for pooling of skills and resources. Incentives may include certification, professional advancement, financial benefits, paid time off for research or training and formal or informal recognition at the school or local community.

In conclusion, I would like to reiterate that teacher attitude and beliefs, confidence and motivation as barriers for ICT are much more important than software and hardware investment. As Mahatma Gandhi said “Find purpose, the means will follow”.

References

What the research says about barriers to use of ICT in teaching. (2003): Becta ICT Research.

Benchmarking Access and Use of ICT in European Schools 2006. (2006): Empirica.

ICT in Teacher Education: Case Studies from the Asia-Pacific Region. (2008): United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO).

Ertmer, P. E. A. (1999). Examining teachers' beliefs about the role of technology in the elementary classroom. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 32(1), 54-72.

Hayes, D. N. A. (2007). ICT and learning: Lessons from Australian classrooms. Computers and Education, 49(2), 385-395.

Jones, A. (2004). A review of the research literature on barriers to the uptake of ICT by teachers: Becta.

Tondeur, J. Hermans, R., Braak, J. v., & Valcke, M.(2008), Exploring the link between teachers’ educational belief profiles and different types of computer use in the classroom, Computers in Human Behavior (2008), doi:10.1016/j.chb.2008.02.020

Trucano, M. (2008). Teachers, Teaching and ICTs - A Knowledge Map on Information & Communication Technologies in Education. Retrieved 06-Sep, 2008, from http://www.infodev.org/en/Publication.157.html

Using Analogies and Modeling in Conjunction With ICT to Enhance Learning

2009-01-11T02:48:00.000-08:00

The debate on how ICT must be integrated into the classroom has been on for more than two decades and shows no signs of closure. The teaching community will agree that integration must not be just for the sake of it- it must be meaningful and bring value that no other instructional method can, as efficiently. One of the studies covered here actually demonstrates that using computers or multimedia in isolation can be less effective than traditional classroom pedagogy.

The underlying instructional method when using multimedia or ICT in general is vital. I have considered two instructional methods that are quite amenable to be used in conjunction with computers- analogy and modeling, especially in teaching science.

Multimedia and Analogy
With the objective of improving science education, researchers and educators have explored the use of analogies in teaching. Two types of analogies that find application are ‘conceptual inference’ and ‘schema induced’. In ‘conceptual inference’, analogical reasoning is made on the basis of relationship between key concepts in the base and the target domains. However, this approach has limitations because semantic ambiguity may result in a mismatch in concepts between base and target domains. On the other hand, induced analogical reasoning requires the learner to understand the analogy through activation of prior knowledge. Gick & Holyoak (1983) cited in Zheng, Yang, Garcia & McCadden (2008) assure that schema induction facilitates better comprehension and knowledge transfer.
___________________________________________________________
Zheng, R. Z., Yang, W., Garcia, D., & McCadden, E. P. (2008). Effects of multimedia and schema induced analogical reasoning on science learning. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2729.2008.00282.x
___________________________________________________________

Multimedia can bring more benefits to education provided it is not just passive viewing (such as video). Interactivity brings engagement and contributes to improved learning. Schwartz (1993) cited in Zheng et al. concluded that visuals provide better cues in problem solving reasoning.

As they were using media with high visual impact, the researchers have also taken into account learner cognitive style which has an impact on learner performance. There are two types of cognitive styles- field dependence and independence. Though these cognitive styles are primarily related to visual perceptiveness, they are shown to be correlated with other cognitive abilities such as problem solving and reasoning. The researchers used the Group Embedded Figure Test (GEFT), developed by Witkin et al. (1971) to determine the learning styles of the students.

Field Dependence/ Independence
Field-independents prefer to have a narrow focus and screen additional information in order to be able to process information more efficiently. In the process, they may miss the social context that their field-dependent peers more readily perceive.

Zheng et al. (2008) focused on

Effects of multimedia combined with analogical reasoning on student performance
Influence of field type on learners’ analogical reasoning

They conducted the study with 89 students from Grade 4 in a school in north-eastern USA. The research design involved creation of four groups based on exposure to multimedia and analogy.

Group 1: Multimedia and analogy (MA)
Group 2: Multimedia (as a visual tool) with no analogy (MNA)
Group 3: Analogy and no multimedia (ANM)
Group 4: No multimedia and no analogy (NMNA): traditional classroom style teaching and memorization

The objective was to teach about electrical DC circuits (comprising wires, voltage source and a light bulb) with the water system (comprising pipes, pump and turbine) as an analogy.

Post teaching, the participants of the study undertook recall and transfer tests, considered reliable for measuring comprehension and knowledge application. The research findings indicate that the first group with exposure to both multimedia and analogy outperformed all the other groups. The group with exposure to multimedia with no analogy had the lowest mean scores for both recall and transfer.

Based on the findings, (Zheng et al. 2008 p.8) conclude: “…the instructional function of multimedia can be significantly enhanced when multimedia is integrated with an adequately designed instructional method.” The researchers also observed that interactive multimedia with visual, oral, aural and other cues supports field dependent type learners who resort to multiple cues in learning.

Using Computer Modelling
Simulations have been used in the past to teach scientific models. However, there is a subtle difference between “simulations” and “modelling” and these terms should not be used interchangeably. Li, Law & Lui (2006) make a very clear distinction between the two. Simulations can be explored by manipulating the variables or parameters provided but the underlying rules of operation cannot be changed. Modelling allows you to change the underlying rules themselves.
___________________________________________________________
Li, S. C., Law, N., & Lui, K. F. A. (2006). Cognitive perturbation through dynamic modelling: a pedagogical approach to conceptual change in science Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 22(6), 405-422
___________________________________________________________
This paper highlights an inquiry based, student centered approach and is heavily dependent on interactivity and personalized learning afforded by computers.

Windschitl & Andre (1998) cited in Li et al. (2006, p.406) report “It was argued that computer-supported simulation and modeling tools provide students with richly contextualized environments to theorize and evaluate their own hypothesis”.

Using software called WorldMaker 2000, the researchers allowed students to explore scientific phenomena by formulating and testing their own theories. Students compared results in the software based model with what they observed in reality and modified it until it helped them provide a satisfactory explanation of the observed phenomenon. The researchers conducted the study with a small sample of 20 students of Grade 6 in a local school in Hong Kong.

The study uses the simple phenomenon of evaporation to illustrate the process of conceptual change. The teacher first demonstrated in the classroom how when a tiny vase of alcohol is opened, it disappears while its smell disperses through the room. Students, divided into four groups of 5 each were then asked to create models explaining the observed phenomenon. The research program extended over a few sessions and some preliminary training for the use of software was also required.

No ideas or views by students were suppressed or ignored, encouraging the inquiry process. The teacher intervened periodically by providing “cognitive perturbation” or disturbance so that the students were guided towards making the right decisions in manipulating the model. “The focus of teachers’ facilitation was to work with rather than against, the students’ alternative conceptions in the process of their model building and modification.” Li et al. (2006, p.409)

The evaporation model had to take into account both the processes:

1. Dispersion of the smell of the alcohol into the surrounding
2. Eventual disappearance of alcohol from the vase

Following the progress of each of the groups over the sessions enlightens us how the model gets more sophisticated as students are challenged.

Misconceptions that were mentioned by students included:
- Considering that a gas was being liberated from inside the alcohol
- The two processes of evaporation and disappearance of alcohol are independent of each other
- Considering that the disappearance of alcohol was caused by a suction force generated by the sun
- The “alcohol gas” rose vertically up like steam does on the opening of a rice cooker

With facilitation by the teacher, the students were able to migrate from their original naïve conceptions towards a more scientific one.

The researchers grouped all the comments made by students in the explanation of the model according to the depth of understanding manifested in them. Mere descriptions of the experimental observations were classified as “Surface explanations”. “Shallow or particulate mechanism explanations” included those describing particulate level of interactions, though not necessarily scientifically correct. The highest level included scientifically acceptable, deeper interpretations of the phenomenon, making references to random motion of particulate matter or change of state during evaporation. As the assignment progressed, the number of scientifically acceptable statements increased and the surface and shallow explanations decreased. The progress made by the groups was graphed using scores. The scores were measured by assigning a weight of (+3) for deep, scientifically acceptable statements, (-1) for shallow statements and (-3) for surface statements. However, the key point again, is that the path and the number of stages that each group took to reach the correct theory was not the same. In fact, one of the groups actually experienced conceptual regression before making progress.

“The underlying notion of cognitive perturbation strategy, as we propose in this study, hinges on the understanding that paths of conceptual change for different students are idiosyncratic, diverse and context laden.” Li et al. (2006, p.407).

Getting the students to compare the behavior of the computer models created with the observed physical phenomenon leads to a conflict that guides the conceptual change.

Implementation of this study across more learning situations and with larger sample sizes will provide more insights and make the recommendations more robust.

Conclusion
Both the papers clearly demonstrate the underlying instructional method is fundamental to the integration of ICT into classroom science education. While such implementation (modelling, multimedia) on a daily basis may seem tedious, using them to teach fundamental science concepts can provide a firm grounding for students to build on in subsequent years.

References

Introduction to Learning Styles (n.d.) Retrieved Sept. 16, 2008, from http://www.ais.msstate.edu/TALS/unit9/moduleA.html

Field Dependence/ Independence (n.d.) Retrieved Sept. 16, 2008, from http://faculty.mdc.edu/jmcnair/Joe13pages/field_dependence.htm

Li, S. C., Law, N., & Lui, K. F. A. (2006). Cognitive perturbation through dynamic modelling: a pedagogical approach to conceptual change in science Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 22(6), 405-422.

Zheng, R. Z., Yang, W., Garcia, D., & McCadden, E. P. (2008). Effects of multimedia and schema induced analogical reasoning on science learning. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2729.2008.00282.x

Relationship between technology and literacy

2008-02-05T19:38:00.000-08:00

Critical Literacy Curriculum For Secondary Schools in India

2008-01-02T14:57:00.000-08:00

Background
The education system in India emphasizes academic content. The quarterly, half-yearly and annual examinations are the most popular forms of assessment. Little attention is given to the teaching of essential literacies like critical, media, technological and multicultural literacies. That responsibility seems to be left to parents who enroll their kids for enrichment courses available outside the school and very few enthusiastic schools and colleges that run special programs (sometimes during holidays).
This paper offers suggestions on incorporating new literacies into the curriculum for secondary school students (Standards 5-10) with emphasis on critical literacy. The final examinations of 10th standard are most crucial for students as the results determine their admission into colleges and polytechnics. I therefore propose the incorporation the critical literacy course into the curricula of 8th & 9th standards rather than the 10th standard. The students are then free to focus on academic content in Std. 10. These students are in the age group of 13-15 years.

Defining Critical Literacy
Critical literacy challenges the status quo in an effort discover alternative paths for self and social development (Shor, 1999). Shor further cites Aronowitz's and Giroux's (1985) notion that "critical literacy would make clear the connection between knowledge and power." The following definition by Shor is comprehensive:
Habits of thought, reading, writing, and speaking which go beneath surface meaning, first impressions, dominant myths, official pronouncements, traditional clichés, received wisdom, and mere opinions, to understand the deep meaning, root causes, social context, ideology, and personal consequences of any action, event, object, process, organization, experience, text, subject matter, policy, mass media, or discourse. (Empowering Education, 129)
Need for teaching critical literacy

For realization of democratic ideals
Literacy for equity is not a new idea. Horace Mann (1796-1859) made tremendous contribution to the public school system in USA. He realized the need for equal education for all children- boys and girls, rich and poor alike. He felt that good education would help the society address ills such as crime, violence and achieve social harmony. Shor (1999) cites John Dewey who in Democracy and Education (1916) states: “The notion that the ‘essentials’ of elementary education are the three R’s, mechanically treated, is based upon the ignorance of the essentials needed for realization of democratic ideals”.
Identifying different discourses and ideologies presented
No text is neutral as it is written with a purpose. In the process of reading, the reader interacts with the content in a number of ways. The act of reading involves different levels of decoding, responding and comprehending at affective and cognitive levels, critiquing and analyzing. The previous knowledge of the reader (cultural, linguistic, general and specific content knowledge) plays a key role in how the reader interacts with the new content. Both inter-textuality and intra-textuality are important aspects in the way the reader “fills in gaps”. The reader fills these gaps through imagination, inference, visualization, prediction and conceptualization (Walsh, 2006). The meaning making and interpreting process is very individual.

Newer multi-modal texts
In a multimodal environment, written text is a part of the message and not necessarily the dominant part. Broadcast (Television, Movies and Radio) and other media such as internet, video games and mobile phones are powerful ways of communicating emotional and socio-cultural aspects. In meaning making from multi-modal texts, the information from the different modes has to be integrated (Walsh, 2006). On websites, hyper-texting allows you to do selective reading and alter the sequence in which you read.

Deliverables of the critical literacy course

I anticipate that in the two years of exposure, students will have imbibed adequate knowledge of new literacies (especially critical, media and multimodal) to independently pursue further interest in them and apply them at school and in their personal lives. This expectation would definitely need to be assessed.

The focus of assessment is not so much to determine whether a student will pass or fail at a particular level but to identify his/ her strengths and weaknesses in critical evaluation of texts and act on them.

Preparation for Teaching Critical Literacy

In terms of time management, I do not suggest many additional hours at school. The critical literacy topics could replace some sessions for main language (for textual critical literacy), art (for visual and media literacy) and computing (for multimodal literacy). Assessments must not be based on "correct" answers but on ability to critically evaluate the content provided and on how the opinions were expressed- keeping in mind the differences and the approaches adopted to resolve them.

While the illustrations here assume the medium of instruction to be English, it may need to be translated into other languages that are used as media for instruction.

Resources
It is unlikely that teachers are already trained to teach critical literacy. Either new staff that are trained in critical thinking/ philosophy or logic have to be hired or existing teachers must be trained to teach the subject.

Building a sensitive, secure environment
The classrooms are unlikely to be homogenous in terms of student religion, gender or physique, leading to creation of power structures. Teachers must ensure a secure environment where students can ask questions and challenge assumptions fearlessly but with a sense of responsibility. Shor (1999) warns that the implementation of critical literacy in the classroom is not easy. The teacher has to be able to manage his/ her power appropriately. Saying too much or too little, too soon or too late, can damage the group process. Setting some ground rules for expressing viewpoints and differences of opinion is important.

Tan (2006), citing Case & Daniels (2002), warns that critical thinking should not be equated with criticism where the student becomes judgmental, harsh, mean-spirited and cynical, doubting or discounting everything he/ she reads and hears.

Critical literacy curriculum

In 2006, the Ministry of Education, Singapore introduced a GCE A Level elective subject “Knowledge and Inquiry (KI).” Having read about this and from discussions with some teachers, I feel that we need a precursor to the critical literacy course. We need to teach critical thinking skills involving reasoning, constructing and evaluating arguments so that students are provided with some framework when they evaluate any kind of text. Further, for most Indians, English is not spoken at home and for many it is not the medium of instruction at school. However, higher studies are conducted in the English and students also need to be trained to be more sensitive to the meanings of words and the ways in which they are used.

The critical literacy curriculum is to be spread over a period of two years (assuming 9 months of school each year) and divided into two parts:

Critical thinking – Constructing and evaluating arguments (Std 8, Months 1-6)
Core critical literacy course (Std. 8, Months 7-9 & all of Std. 9)

The group and individual assignments must set aside adequate time for reflection.

I. Critical thinking

Having seen some of these topics being taught at enrichment centers for primary school students in Singapore, I do not anticipate them to be complicated for students who are 13-15 years of age. Some of these topics can also be taught through games.
Suggested texts: Analytical Skills: Constructing and Evaluating Arguments by Guan, Nowacki, Williams & Leong, 2005; Logic Made Easy by Bennett, 2004 & “The Dictionary of Confusable words” by Lawrence Udang (ISBN: 0-345-35987-9).

(Std. 8, Months 1-3)
Structuring a logical argument into premises and conclusion.

Principles of induction, deduction and falsification
Laws of excluded middle and non-contradiction.

Identifying valid and sound arguments, valid argument forms
Usage of quantifiers (all, every, some, none many, few…) in propositions
Usage of terms “either/ or/ and/ not”
Usage of sentences such as “If…, then…”
Contraries and contradictories

Applications in mathematics:
Euclid’s proof that there is an infinite number of prime numbers.
Euclid’s proof for congruence of alternate interior angles formed by a line falling on parallel lines.

(Std. 8, Month 4)

Mistakes in reasoning

Formal and informal fallacies

Irrelevance

Weak induction

Presumption

Ambiguity

(Std. 8, Months 5-6)
Other key concepts

Distinction between belief and knowledge

Paradox- Textual and Visual

Occam’s razor

Correlation and causal relationship

Necessary and sufficient condition

Definitions
Understanding the criteria of a good definition- in an argument it may be necessary to define the terms that are used as sometimes the same word can have different meanings or can be used in a different sense. By using a definition that is precise, not circular and not unfairly emotive, we can avoid ambiguity.

Writing assignment: What is a definition of a Planet? Why has Pluto been declassified as a planet?

II. Core Critical Literacy

This component would last for 3 months of Std. 8 and continue into Std. 9. Critical literacy in some ways encompasses other forms of literacy such as multicultural, visual and media literacy and the proposed curriculum will reflect that.

Negotiating content with students
The teacher should not provide a ready framework for critical evaluation of any text. The teacher must play the role of a facilitator, guiding the students towards collaboratively identifying the criteria. By doing this, students will be trained to independently determine criteria rather than treating these criteria as a template- which defeats the purpose of teaching critical literacy.

The criteria/ questions may be along these lines:
What would be the author’s motive in writing this text?
Is there any key issue/ opinion that the author is making?
Does he/ she use any attention grabbing techniques- phrases, headlines etc.
Does the content here profit or assign more power to anybody?
Is there an undue emphasis on some aspect that is not essential?
Who are the publishers/ owners of the particular newspaper or magazine?
What is my view on that topic? How has that changed (if at all) after reading the text?
Would my peers agree or disagree with me? Why do they disagree?
What kind of language is used? Are they any words used that are likely to cause confusion?
Is the story supported by an images/ video (if web-based) to strengthen the message?
Do I feel that the author displays any kind of bias for or against any group of people?
What possibilities can I think of that the author has not covered? Why would he/ she have not covered those?

The specific content to be discussed should be relevant to the students, thought provoking, a mix of local, national and international and not too sensitive to cause any kind of discomfort.

Group exercises assume a class of 40 students.

(Std. 8, Months 7-8)
Textual- Basic critical literacy
Topic 1: Short stories and poems from the English text book.
Topic 2: Extracts from more current stories that all students may have not necessarily read (For example: Chronicles of Narnia, Harry Potter series).

Assignment: Students to identify criteria and critically evaluate the selected text. Group discussions and presentations are suggested so that students get familiar with the process of critical evaluation of the text.

(Std. 8, Month 9)
Topic 3: Basic visual literacy
Introduction to visual literacy is essential so that multimodal texts can be critically evaluated. I also feel that given the exposure to picture books, comics, animation and video games, students will find it easier to be critical visually than textually. (I would verify this hypothesis and modify the sequence if required).

Group Assignment: Sorting photographs
Students to bring to school a photograph of their choice from a newspaper, magazine or website. Small groups are assigned the following tasks (Callow, 2006):

· Sort selected photographs into categories such as trustworthy/ untrustworthy, friendly/ unfriendly. Discuss the classification process. Discuss students’ opinions and differences if any.
· Identify the purpose for which the selected photographs can be used- family album, election or advertisement.

Annual assessment: Teacher to conduct a written test and provide feedback to students.

(Std. 9, Month 1)
Topic 4: Visual literacy (Continued)
Group Assignment: Students (in groups of 5) to evaluate 8 photographs based on criteria identified. Students to determine criteria, facilitated by the teacher. Suggested criteria (Callow, 2006):
o Shot location/ background
o Lines that lead the eye (vectors)
o Symbolic representations (a model for beauty, fresh food for good health)
o Colors used - what do they represent?
o Interactive aspects- relationship between the viewer and what is viewed: Angle used- high/ low or eye level (power relations), distance-close up/ mid/ distant (to create viewer rapport- intimacy/ detachment)

Group assignment: Poster evaluation: This exercise is timed with the selection of the class representative. 5 students who compete for the post of class representative must create posters as a part of their campaign. The remaining students are to be divided into 7 groups of 5 each and asked to critically evaluate these posters. (Based on exercise conducted by Callow, 2006)

(Std. 9, Month 2)
Topic 5: Identify the different types of content in a newspaper or a magazine and understand the purpose for that content to be there
o Editorial opinion/ news item (factual report)/ Reader comment/ Advertorial/ Advertisements / Public service messages/ Government messages/ Messages sponsored by individuals or companies/ Public notice/ Obituaries/ Images/ Cartoons

Writing assignments:
Identify a cartoon based on a current news item and relate it to the news story. How does the cartoonist create humor out of the story? Is he/ she taking a position on the subject covered?
Compare and contrast any two types of content- say a news item and an editorial opinion OR a news item and an advertorial.

(Std. 9, Month 3)
Topic 6: Advanced visual literacy
Understanding change blindness: Change blindness is a phenomenon in visual perception in which very large changes occurring in full view in a visual scene are not noticed. (O’Regan) This will help them in critically evaluating image and video content. (Some illustrations can be found at http://www.psych.ubc.ca/~rensink/flicker/download/)

(Std. 9, Month 4)
Topic 7: To evaluate a newspaper or magazine article that expresses an opinion.

Group assignment: Students to choose a recent article from the newspaper and bring it to the classroom. Teacher to shortlist 8 articles and assign them to groups of 5 students each for evaluation.

Types of news stories:

IIT students rejecting jobs at Dow Chemicals

Hindu idols drinking milk offered to them

Claims of climate change

Smoking scenes in movies

Writing assignment: Identify a news story and compare how a national newspaper and an international newspaper cover it.

(Std. 9, Month 5)
Topic 8: Articles that make claims
These could be evaluated using additional questions such as: What do the numbers mean? Do the numbers justify the claim made? How is the point made- in absolute numbers, in terms of percentage, as an average? Can this be interpreted in any other way?

Writing assignment: Create a news story making a claim using a fictitious or real set of numbers (to be provided by the teacher).

Writing assignment: Verifying a claim: The school cricket teams in Bombay are better than those in Bangalore.
How can this claim be verified? What is a better team? What data sources would you look at- survey research or statistical records?

(Std. 9, Month 6)
Topic 9: Evaluating Website content
Having spoken to a few students, I understand that they tend to use the internet to access Wikipedia, search for information (predominantly using Google & Yahoo) and use networking sites like Orkut and Facebook. It is therefore important that students learn safe usage of the internet and evaluate the reliability of information available. They need to know the differences between search results and sponsored links, websites and blogs and information and opinion.

Group assignment: Use 2 different search engines and evaluate the search results on relevance and recency and the sponsored links displayed.

Group assignment: Visit 2 websites on any topic of choice and evaluate them. Both websites must belong to the same subject/ genre.
Again, the criteria for evaluating the websites must be arrived at from discussion with students. Suggested criteria (Based on course material, USQ):

Linguistic design – Purpose of the text, language used- simple or technical, choice of words

Audio design – Sound effects either independently or associated with actions- rolling over of mouse, clicking on a link etc.

Spatial design – Page layout, links highlighted, overall architecture

Use of a spokesperson/ mascot, images used

Visual design – Foreground and background colours, perspective, vectors (the way your eyes are led to view an image in a particular spot)

(Std. 9, Months 7-8)

Topic 10: Media literacy
This topic will focus on current advertising themes in print and online advertising. Categories to be covered could include product advertising (especially categories that are targeted to the youth, such as aerated soft-drinks, fast-food and cigarettes), celebrity endorsements and political advertising.

Writing assignment: Compare a print or online ad with a Television commercial for the same brand. Are the messages in the two media different? Determine the purpose the two media serve, which one is more effective and why.

(Std.9, Month 9)
Annual assessment: Teacher to conduct a written test and provide feedback to students.

Summary

Given the increasing disparities in income, complex relationships between religion, politics and business, unabated crime and violence and proliferation of media choices, critical literacy is increasingly relevant today.

Before learning critical literacy, students may need to be prepared by providing critical thinking and analytical skills. The following statement summarizes the correct approach: “I won’t tell you what to believe and do; but I will help you acquire the ability to decide for yourself what to believe and what to do, familiarize you with the beliefs and procedures of others and help you master some of these procedures” (Mohanan).

When teaching critical literacy, the content must be thought provoking and relevant to the students. The emphasis should be on learning the process rather than getting the right answer to secure marks.

References
1. Barger, R. N. (2004). History of American Education- Web Project [Electronic Version]. Retrieved 20-12-2007 from http://www.nd.edu/~rbarger/www7/mann.html
2. Bennett, D. J. (2004). Logic Made Easy: Penguin Books.
3. Callow, J. (2006). Images, politics and multiliteracies: Using a visual metalanguage Australian Journal of Language and Literacy, Vol.29 (No.1), 7-23.
4. Guan, T. Y., Nowacki, M., Williams, J., & Leong, W. Y. (2005). Analytical Skills: Constructing and Evaluating Arguments: McGraw Hill.
5. K.P.Mohanan. Knowledge and Inquiry: Leaders and Citizens [Electronic Version] from http://courses.nus.edu.sg/course/ellkpmoh/kti/leaders.htm
6. O'Regan, J. K. Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science- Change Blindness. Retrieved 25-Dec-2007, from http://nivea.psycho.univ-paris5.fr/ECS/ECS-CB.html
7. Shor, I. (1999). What is Critical Literacy? Journal for Pedagogy, Pluralism & Practice, Vol.1 (Issue 4) Retrieved 30-Dec-2007 from http://www.lesley.edu/journals/jppp/4/shor.html
8. Sim, J. E. K., & Lau, E. (2007). Knowledge & Inquiry- The Textbook: Panpac Education.
9. Tan, C. (2006). Creating Thinking Schools through 'Knowledge and Inquiry': the curriculum challenges for Singapore. Curriculum Journal, Vol.17 (No.1), 89-105.
10. Walsh, M. (2006). The 'textual shift': Examining the reading process with print, visual and multimodal texts. Australian Journal of Language and Literacy, Vol.29 (No.1), 24-37.

Sustainability For Education In Rural India

2007-10-27T17:05:00.000-07:00

Background

This paper focuses on the application of discipline based learning to teaching science and math at secondary and higher secondary school levels to students in rural India, where people are engaged in traditional occupations such as farming. 70% of Indians live in over 550,000 villages. [5]
The paper demonstrates how some of the suggestions for sustainable development made by UNESCO (Appendix A) can or are being implemented.

The Indian Education System
There are three stages- Primary (Years 1-4), Secondary (Years 5-10) and Junior College or Higher Secondary (Years 11-12) prior to entering graduation. The key examinations (Years 10 & 12) are conducted by state or central boards. In the recent years, private schools that follow the western system have also started in India. In most schools, the learning outcome is determined by marks acquired in examinations. Some schools have moved to a grade based system.

The Indian education system allows for reservations on the basis of caste and also on the basis of language in institutions run by linguistic minorities in various states. Such reservations are neither permanent solutions and nor are they adequate as economic support is required as well. Hence, monetary incentives in the form of scholarships and fee waivers are also offered.

Girls' enrollment continues to lag behind that of boys. The Gender Parity Index for elementary education was 0.89 in 2005.
Before I go into the details for application of discipline based learning, I would like to address the issues with sustainability as this is the over-riding factor in structuring the curriculum.
Two essential aspects of sustainability are "environmental integrity" and "social justice".[4] While the proposed design and curriculum address both, the emphasis is on the “Social justice”.

Issues with sustainability
Children from the socio-economically backward classes & rural areas face problems:

1. Physical access (not living within a reasonable distance from a school or excluded on the basis of caste/ religion/ gender)

2. Financial access (unable to either afford schooling or afford to spend time going to school as sometimes they are expected to lend a helping hand in economic activities, for example - working at the farms)

3. Poor resources
· Physical - According to DISE (District Information System For Education) 2005-6 data [7],

i. 4.12% (46,364) of the schools don’t have a building. Of these 92.35% are located in rural areas. (All existing buildings are not permanent structures).
ii. 9.54% of the schools remain single classroom schools and 10.45% schools lack classrooms.
iii. Only 10.73% schools have a computer.

· Human - The DISE data [7] also states that
i. Average pupil-teacher ratio for the country is 1:36, with significant variations to the upper end
ii. 30.73% schools lack female teachers.

Public spending on higher education is at USD 400 per student, the lowest among the emerging economies (Brazil, Russia, India and China).[6] The spend estimates may not be accurate as schools may inflate the number of students enrolled or marks awarded so that the students continue to receive the scholarships/ waivers and the school continues to receive funding. This leads to overall decline in a system where learning outcomes are measured by examination marks. It is be advisable to de-link the two and emphasize on real, practical learning.

The results of the Government Schooling system are discouraging:

· 70% dropout by Class 8 and only 5% enter higher education (Shah & Veetil, Pg 5 citing Raina 2006)
· Some Indian states have a coefficient of efficiency around 50%
Coefficient of efficiency (%) = (No. of years necessary to graduate to a particular stage/ No. of years actually taken by the pupil) (Shah & Veetil, Pg 6)
· Competency levels are below expectations with over 88% of the 3rd – 5th standard students in Andhra Pradesh state unable to do single digit subtraction. (Shah & Veetil, Pg 6)

Discipline Based Learning Approach
The approach should take into account the industries or occupations in the immediate neighborhood of the student. The rationale for this is that for students from economically backward classes, survival is a bigger concern rather than education. The solution therefore is in providing education that empowers them, making them independent rather than going through 7 years of secondary and higher secondary schooling towards graduation. Looking at the statistics of the dropout rates and entry into higher education, this might be a better approach.
Once they start working either for themselves or for others, their quality of life will improve, as their basic needs will be met. This will encourage them to study further through avenues available for continuing education.

The Setting

The setting could be a village or a small town in India where students from economically backward classes are constrained by access to quality science and math education.

The Solution
The curriculum must factor in the needs of students and communities – farming/ fishing/ small-scale industry. The focus of curriculum must be on life skills, empowerment and employability or entrepreneurship.

The solution has to serve two purposes:
Firstly, the curriculum must focus on practical science that finds application in their daily lives. The approach should be from practice to theory rather than from theory to practice.
Secondly, it should run parallel to mainstream education so that interested students (currently a minority) can find avenues for higher education at a later stage.

The objective is to provide working knowledge in order to ensure that students are able to quickly sustain themselves financially. Rather than pure disciplinary knowledge, the emphasis must be on the sector and inter-disciplinary knowledge. (Learning about Life-cycle of whales, Structures of Organic compounds, Half-life of radioactive elements does not meet immediate needs).

The sector can be defined through dialogue between educators, senior members of the local community and social workers. For instance, in villages that depend on agriculture for their livelihood; this sector will determine educational content. While this restricts flexibility, it can be tackled by offering opportunities for continuing education. On the other hand, if we do not help these individuals out of poverty, there is little hope. Through emphasis on relevant subjects or topics and broader forms of assessment, motivation can also be higher.

So instead of the prescribed subject specific approach that mainstream/ urban students are exposed to, these students should be offered a different curriculum.

Devising the curriculum

As in a discipline based approach, the content is not arrived at through dialogue between all participants. It addresses the needs of learners as a group rather than as individuals. The emphasis is on the product or the final outcome. The process aspect becomes important only during the course of performing laboratory experiments or making observations in the field.

Example: Course content for teaching science and math in agricultural economies

Physics could include
Working of machines- Focus on modern farm equipment and machinery
Theory and application of Solar energy, Hydro energy, Wind energy

Biology
Structured around plants and animals found in the vicinity, farm animals, pests and micro-organisms that may damage crops or threaten farm animals
Protecting biodiversity
Personal health & hygiene-Understanding of communicable diseases, Prevention of HIV/ AIDS

Chemistry could include
Understanding of organic and inorganic compounds, focus on pesticides, weedicides
Plant extracts

Geography-Earth, Atmospheric & Planetary Science
Climate, seasonality, weather forecast
Crop selection based on seasonality
Determining soil quality

Environmental science
Availability of natural resources
Planning and implementing efficient usage of resources
Waste management, recycling and biodegradability
Pollution- Industrial pollution, acid rains, usage of pesticides
Disaster management-Dealing with floods, drought, locusts, forest fires

Farm management
Legal aspects of owning and renting agricultural lands
Efficient utilization of land, crop rotation, enhancing crop productivity
Storage and transfer of produce
Organic farming, Hydroponics
Understanding of international best practices in agriculture

Technology
Biotechnology
Application of plants/ crops in the field of medicine, as sources of energy
Usage of internet

Scope for Math should be widened to cover Finance/ Economics
Money management, savings
Utilization of credit facilities, microfinance to fund farm activities
Commodity markets
Demand and supply, Basic trade skills, Pricing

While such content would definitely be taught to undergraduate students (Bachelor of Science, Agriculture), all basic and essential aspects could be simplified and incorporated at secondary and higher secondary school levels. We can thus ensure that students who drop out of school or do not pursue higher studies have acquired knowledge that can make them employable.
Superstitions, pseudo-science (astrology) and blind faith abound in India and especially in smaller towns and villages. To tackle this, students of science must be taught to be objective and unbiased. It is important that students develop

Sense of curiosity, asking questions to learn

Patience to go through experimentation

Reflect on observations to make interpretations

Understand the relevance of the learning

Attitude to take on problems, issues and resolve them

Activities can be done in a group to facilitate collaborative learning.

Documentaries/ educational films made in an entertaining format would also appeal to these students.

Learning theory
Discipline based learning relies on the cognitive model and adopts a constructivist approach.
Keeping in mind the importance attached to caste and religion and to gender biases that exist, course material should be devised in such a way that it promotes tolerance towards others (economically backward classes, lower castes and the disabled) and respect for women and their role in society.

Generic skills that are relevant and should be incorporated

Communication (written and spoken) and social skills through collaborative learning

Concept maps as these help students have a overview of the various topics and the relationships between them

Critical reflection (teaching them the process of learning to learn)

Teaching and knowledge sharing capabilities (making the process self sustaining)

Learning outcomes

Understanding of concepts in science

Familiarity with scientific terminology and equipment

Positive attitude towards nature and environment

Participate/ collaborate in projects- which may take form art or drama as these forms of expression traditionally exist

Successfully clear half yearly and annual examinations, projects assigned

Economic outcome- Employability and/or entrepreneurial capabilities

Advantages/disadvantages of applying Discipline Based Learning

Advantages

The interdisciplinary approach is structured around the most common occupations in the community. This ensures that the students find immediate application and relate to what they study.

The economic benefits can also be realized earlier, alleviating poverty which is vital for their progress.

Easier to convince parents that the education is of value to their children and themselves

Disadvantages

As the focus is on meeting immediate needs, there is a risk that students with an interest in broader academic studies and higher education – someone who aspires to study calculus, nuclear physics or economics may be at a disadvantage.

Resistance is likely be encountered as it disturbs the existing status quo and would involve restructuring of syllabus. People employing children or adults from lower socio-economic strata as laborers would be reluctant in empowering these individuals.

Extra effort would be required to ensure that these students can integrate (if they wish to) with the mainstream students for higher education

Ensuring Sustainability

Providing microfinance and microcredit

The poor farmers and agricultural laborers must be provided access to credit facilities such as microcredit- small loans provided without any collateral. This finance can be used to fund education of children, tide over short illnesses, provide for important events such as marriage, purchase of raw materials for farm activities and/ or self-start a small business. However, business opportunities still need to be created and this needs a plan for broader social and economic development. As interest rates can still be quite high, teaching proper utilization of the credit is important.

Keeping costs low
The cost of education must be kept low but without any compromise in the quality of education.

Costs can be also kept low by

Providing students and teachers internet access at lower costs.

Use key connecting points such as post offices, railway stations to deliver educational material and sessions.

Making use of educational material and software that are freely available on the internet.

Recycling of used books for needy students

Providing e-learning. The same content can reproduced in various languages across India

Sharing of resources- Laboratories, playgrounds, sports equipment, library materials such as DVDs, books, internet access can be shared across schools.

Providing support

Scholarships, loans and education vouchers (which can be redeemed even in private schools) must be made available to needy students.

When a student fails to meet expectations, provide him with more social support or tutors as the need may be. Set-up a help-line/ tele-mentoring service to advise students.

Get parents to be involved in their children’s education in order to make it successful.

Building awareness of educational opportunities among parents and students is a critical factor in the success of such programs.

Educational research teams should be provided platforms such as mass media (Radio and Television) for sharing best practices with schools.

Accountability

Wastage of funds and any kind of pilferage must be prevented

Monitoring the performance of students (and schools) receiving financial aid is crucial so that they respect it and take their education seriously.

Stipends for female students are structured by linking it to remaining unmarried till turning 18 years old or completion of schooling, apart from academic expectations. This promotes gender parity and lowers incidence of female infanticide. (Shah & Veetil, Pg.14)

Teachers also need to be provided incentives so that absenteeism in reduced or eliminated. UNESCO has proposed an “Innovative Science/ Technology teaching Award” [10]

The Government should focus on facilitation and supervision. It should set up mechanisms to supervise and evaluate the educational programs.

Creating more opportunities to access education

Building more schools and making them sustainable- “Edupreneurs” can be given lands at subsidized rates to build schools in exchange of reserving a proportion of seats, about 10-25%. (Shah & Veetil, Pg14) for students from economically backward classes. Alternatives could be financial loans at minimal or zero interest rates. This should also be linked to activities such as training and mentoring. By training locally, it eliminates the need to “import” teachers from cities at higher costs, making such operations financially sustainable.

Appendix A

UNESCO presented a plan to focus on sustainable development under three key headings ‘society, environment and economy with culture as an underlying dimension.’ With regard to educational programs for sustainable development, UNESCO expressed a desire for high quality initiatives demonstrating characteristics such as [8]:

Interdisciplinary and holistic: learning for sustainable development embedded in the whole curriculum, not as a separate subject;

Values-driven: sharing the values and principles underpinning sustainable development;

Critical thinking and problem solving: leading to confidence in addressing the dilemmas and challenges of sustainable development;

Multi-method: word, art, drama, debate, experience,…different pedagogies which model the processes;

Participatory decision-making: learners participate in decisions on how they are to learn;

Locally relevant: addressing local as well as global issues, and using the language(s) which learners most commonly use.

With regard to the involvement of students in programs towards sustainable development, UNESCO has referred to specific strategies such as: [9]

Institutionalizing youth participation in the formulation and implementation of sustainable development awareness programs.

Peer-to-peer education for sustainable development is the most likely to result in behavioral change. As such, we should encourage peer education within the formal education system.

Introducing education on sustainable development at an early age with a focus on educating young women and girls as well as out of school youth and other marginalized youth.

References:

1. Shah, P. J. and V. P. Veetil. (2006, December 2006). "Private Education For The Poor In India." from http://ssrn.com/abstract=950146

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