Introduction
The scope of computing in education is really vast. There are a number of perspectives to take into account. At the end of the course, I believe that techno-optimism is the way to go- but not with blind faith. There are a number of pitfalls along the way and educational institutions and even government institutions (National Grid for Learning, UK) have been baffled when the returns on ICT investment are poor (Nichol and Watson, 2003).
I am convinced that the benefits of ICT integration outweigh the drawbacks and the concerns can be addressed or at least alleviated.
Embracing ICT in education is like starting on a journey with no U-turn as predicting the future is not easy. The pace of change accelerates and with it brings changes that that will have a dramatic impact on our lives. Nobody is immune. Teachers and students have to learn to understand the changing environments and adapt to it.
The experiences that students today undergo are richer, complex and varied. When I was a student, I had finished all my primary schooling even before I had a black and white TV at home. Radio and audio cassette players were the only other “gadgets” I had exposure to. Students today have exposure to manifold devices: Television, HD Television, Cable and Satellite TV, Free terrestrial TV, personal computers, Internet, PDAs, Mobile phones, portable games, game consoles, online multiplayer games, MP3, audio-visual projectors, Interactive whiteboards and multimedia DVDs.
The Internet is possibly the one factor that has irreversibly changed our lives on earth. It has brought us into contact with people and resources in a way that we would have never imagined. High speed internet has expanded the scope of exchange from plain text to audio and video as well. Email, instant messenger, SMS, MMS, voice message, video chat, voice and video conference, asynchronous discussion and online collaboration tools (concept maps, wikis, and Google docs), social and professional networks have all changed the way we are expected to communicate and collaborate in our academic and professional lives.
“Whatever way we slice it, it's a different world
• Things have fundamentally & irrevocably changed
• It’s not just change today and status quo tomorrow
• It's constant, relentless change today and change tomorrow - change forever”
(Jukes and McCain, n.d.)
The urgency
The world around us is changing rapidly and by the time students finish schooling, it would have changed even further.
Take a look at the jobs that will be in demand by 2020 (Canton, 2007, p111):
Knowledge management advisors
Nano-bio entrepreneurs
Artists, Writers, Poets
On demand supply-chain designers
Global headhunters
Taking in such information, the education system has to be restructured to ensure that there is a match between industry needs and 10-15 years down the line and what is taught in the school today.
“I skate to where the puck is going to be, not to where it has been.” Wayne Gretzky (Canadian professional ice hockey player)
ICT Literacy in a Knowledge Society
ICT literacy is essential to ensure that they are employable and can function in a knowledge society. The computer can be used either as a tool to enhance productivity, as a resource to learn something or as a “Tutee” and can be taught to do something - manipulate and process data to obtain the desired result.
This has evolved further. Smaller devices like PDAs and mobile phones allow you to store files, use productivity tools like spreadsheets and word processors and access the internet. Even secure banking transactions can be done over mobile phones. These devices only differ in the user interface they offer.
I therefore prefer to use the phrase ICT literacy instead of computer literacy and define it as done by ETS (Educational Testing Service) in Digital Transformation, A Framework for ICT Literacy (2002, p2.):
“ICT literacy is using digital technology, communications tools, and/or networks to access, manage, integrate, evaluate, and create information in order to function in a knowledge society”.
This moves the emphasis from the device and places it on an individual’s ability.
ICT Implementation
Involving everybody
ICT integration is not a unilateral policy designed or implemented by a single entity. The interests of school administration, teachers, parents, students, government and businesses must be represented in the framing and implementation of policies.
How does the role of the teacher change?
The computer is another tool, just like pen, paper or a calculator. It changes how information is organized and accessed. Setting up a computer lab or providing students with laptops is only a starting point. It’s what you do with them and what you put in them that make the difference.
Computers have not yet transformed the teaching practices of a majority of teachers (Becker, 2000; Zhao, Pugh, Sheldon and Byers, 2002). Conditions that are favorable for successful integration of ICT are:
-Teachers’ motivation and comfort with the use of computers
-Easy access to computers or other ICT resources for classroom activities
-Teachers’ adoption of student centered, constructivist pedagogy
-A supportive school culture (administration and peers) and
- The relevance of ICT to the topic being taught
Some examples:
-Electronic journals that allow recording of laboratory work in the form of images and video instead of plain hand-written journals (Bell, Park and Toti, 2004)
-Use of videos to learn oral history, making it a more personal experience and something that can be shared with others- effectively becoming creators of content (Levin, 2003)
-Project based learning where ICT enables students to learn using real-life examples, even for subjects such as mathematics, which may seem to be irrelevant to future employment (Levert, 2003)
Education is also a business and there will be hardware and software manufacturers, activists, politicians and parents who will exert their influence on the implementation of ICT in the classroom. It is the responsibility of the teacher to evaluate the options and choose an ICT solution that contributes most to meaningful constructivist learning.
Changes for a student
What has to change for a student is not just the way he/ she studies it but also how he/ she is assessed. Assessments that focus more on memory recall are not relevant any longer as the body of knowledge has multiplied in the past few years. Accessing large volumes of information/ data at high speed has become very easy. The student skill set has to therefore move on to skimming and scanning the large volume of information, critically evaluating it for currency, relevance and authenticity and using it to find solutions.
Students are not passive participants- they have the potential to co-create content that is authentic and powerful to be shared with people all over the world. (Levin, 2003)
Students must learn to use both strategies- competition and collaboration, depending on what is most appropriate in a given situation. In an ICT integrated environment, this extends to dealing with people they may know only in an online environment. Online communication skills therefore become very important.
Managing resources
In an environment where getting budgets for ICT implementation are not easy to come by, differentiating between needs and wants is important (Kozma, 2003). Not all applications need the fastest processors, high resolution monitors, high speed broadband internet or Wi-Fi connection or expensive software. Even older technologies like radio and terrestrial TV can offer low-cost alternative solutions. A number of resources are available for free and some software is available at subsidized rates for educational institutions.
Developing nations- different solutions for a different world
India is one of the best examples of the digital divide. At one end, India has made great progress in the areas of IT, space exploration and nuclear technology, and has world class engineering and business schools. At the other end, it has inadequate number of teachers, little teacher training and poor basic school infrastructure, especially in semi-urban and rural areas.
The ICT and the Telecom sectors (services) have made a huge contribution to the GDP growth, making India among the ten fastest growing economies in the world. However, it is only in recent years that application of ICT education has received attention. Catching up with the developed nations without spending huge sums of money means identifying low cost, innovative solutions that reach geographically dispersed students living in rural areas and overcoming barriers due to socioeconomic conditions, language and gender.
Conclusion
Meaningful ICT integration is a change beyond simple amplification of current practices in schools. The ultimate goal of school and university education should be where students, depending on their abilities and interests, can study at a place of their choice , be assessed at a pace they choose to and have the opportunity to discuss issues with teachers and students across the world. ICT can be the enabler of such an environment. Having set off on a road with no U-turn, this goal will be reached. What we don’t know is the distance and the time it will take.
References
Digital Transformation- A Framework for ICT Literacy. (2002). Retrieved 06 Nov, from http://www.ets.org/research/researcher/ICT-REPORT.html
Becker, H. J. (2000). Findings from the teaching, learning, and computing survey: Is Larry Cuban right? Paper presented at the School Technology Leadership Conference of The Council of Chief State School Officers, Washington D.C. Retrieved 31 May, 2004, from http://www.crito.uci.edu/tlc/findings/ccsso.pdf
Bell, R. L., Park, J. C., & Doug Toti. (2004). Digital images in the science classroom. Learning and Leading with Technology, 31(8), 26-28.
Bharadwaj, V. (2005). Pilot Testing of Performance Indicators for Information & Communication Technology (ICT) in Education in India. Retrieved 23 Aug, 2008 from http://www.vivekbharadwaj.in/researchstudies_1.html
Canton, J. (2007). The Extreme Future: Plume. ISBN: 978-0-452-28866-9.
Jukes, I., & McCain, T. (n.d.). Welcome to the wired world. Retrieved 6 Nov, 2008, from http://www.tcpd.org/McCain/Handouts/Wired.pdf
Kozma, R. B. (2003). Global Perspectives- Innovative Technology Integration Practices from Around the World. Learning and Leading with Technology, 31(2), 6-9, 52-54.
Levert, B. (2003-04). We're Poppin for Math. Learning and Leading with Technology, 31(4), 20-23.
Levin, H. (2003). Making History Come Alive. Learning and Leading with Technology, 31(3), 22-27.
Nichol, J., & Watson, K. (2003). Editorial: Rhetoric and reality—the present and future of ICT in education. British Journal of Educational Technology, 34(2), 131-136.
Taylor, R. P. (1980). Introduction. In R. P. Taylor (Ed.), The computer in school: Tutor, tool, tutee (pp. 1-10). New York: Teachers College Press.
Veen, W., & Vrakking, B. (2006). Homo Zappiens- Growing up in a digital age: Network Continuum. ISBN: 1-85539-220-8
Wayne Grtezky, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayne_Gretzky retrieved 06 Nov, 2008
Zhao, Y., Pugh, K., Sheldon, S., & Byers, J. L. (2002). Conditions for Classroom Technology Innovations. Teachers College Record, 104(3), 482-515.
Sunday, January 11, 2009
Overcoming Language Barriers in Use of ICT in Developing Nations
Internet beyond English language
There is no doubt that English is the most common language on the internet. According to Internet World Stats report, the top three languages on the internet are English, Chinese and Spanish. So, all other languages in the world together account for 43.2% of internet usage.
The developing nations are at one end battling poverty reduction initiatives and putting in place or improving basic educational infrastructure at the other end having to catch up with developed nations in the more advanced areas of educational ICT. Creating content in local language is therefore lower on the priority list. Educational content and software are not readily available in local languages. Further, familiarity with English language is even lower among the economically backward classes, widening the digital divide.
Language can therefore become a barrier to e-learning as it limits the ability to use the internet. How can it be overcome? Some countries are faced with a dilemma- focus on teaching the English language so as to encourage ICT usage or invest in creation of educational content, software and technical documentation in local languages. There is a fear that emphasis on English language education can hurt assimilation of local language and cultures among the youth in these countries. Only countries like India and Philippines extensively offer the option of English as a medium of instruction.
I have summarized some successful ICT strategies that focus on the language barrier, as reported by International Telecommunication Union (ICT Success Stories- Digital Education and Learning, 2006):
Initiatives to overcome the language barrier
Let’s explore initiatives that are already undertaken and those that can be to overcome the language barrier:
Access
Reaching people living in remote locations is important as students in such locations are also unlikely to have access to qualified teachers. Radio and Television easily extend reach into rural areas. Among the successful ICT strategies listed earlier, three of them made use of radio. In India, a recently started educational channel delivered direct to home via satellite aims to provide audio in at least 2 local languages in addition to English.
VSAT (Very Small Aperture Terminals), a satellite communication system has been extensively utilized in the education sector in India. It is very useful in connecting remote locations.
To enable access to hardware- Keyboards in local language and software- user interfaces in local language need to be made available. This can pose a problem in some countries. India has over 20 local languages. In Thailand, the situation is more complicated with the Thai language character set requiring 90 different letters on keyboard compared to 66 for English.
Teacher support
Teachers’ inadequate English language competence has been reported as an obstacle to teachers’ learning of ICT according to Grinfields (1999) cited in Pelgrum & Law (2003)
Hence, documentation and training material for use of ICT has to be made available in local languages.
Hiring ICT trainers who can speak two or more languages would definitely benefit educational institutions. Countries that have common languages can pool their resources together. For instance, Tamil is taught in Singapore as well some states in southern India. Mandarin Chinese and Bahasa Malaysia are taught in Singapore and Malaysia. In India, with over 20 official languages, this should easy as people some states are familiar with 2 or more languages in addition to English.
Content
It is important to ensure that all content relevant to education, especially primary education is available local in languages. Most easy to implement, is to digitize local language content that is available in traditional print/ audio or video format and make it accessible.
Increased emphasis on visual elements such as animations, images, 3D environments instead of traditional text will make the content easily portable across different languages and facilitate easy understanding of concepts.
Just as sub-titles are used in movies and television programs, they should be used for educational content such as videos and animations as well.
Wikis can be a great tool to create content in local language. Wikipedia is the best example- in such a short span of time; it has more than 100,000 articles available in 23 languages.
Apart from creation of locally relevant content, translation of English language content into local languages is being done. As this is a tedious process to be implemented manually, machine translation is being made use of.
This first attempts to use machines to translate languages was made in the US in 1954 by collaboration between IBM and Georgetown University. Since then there have been other attempts at it. Google translator is a recent one. Clicking a button on the Google toolbar will allow people to read in English, pages in languages they are not familiar with. Sometime in the future, using instant messengers, we should be able to chat with people who do not speak the same language (as the computer will do the translations on the fly). Machine translations are not perfect but can definitely make the task easier by reducing the human effort.
Countries such as Bangladesh, India and Thailand are actively looking at machine translation to remove the language barrier.
Promoting English language literacy
While this can be definitely seen as controversial in many countries, functional knowledge of the language can go a long way in promoting adoption of ICT in education. Language learners can not only learn to read and write but also to speak. The software can save the conversation as an audio file and compare their pronunciation, with a benchmark and evaluate. Applications that can convert text to speech and speech to text would be extremely valuable.
Technology actually enables preservation of local culture, language and literary knowledge rather than being a threat to it. A good example would be “Te Ara” a national encyclopaedia of New Zealand (http://www.teara.govt.nz/) covering natural environment, history, culture, economy and institutions. It is available in Māori and English and makes extensive use of multimedia content including audio, video and innovative maps (ICT Success Stories- Digital Education and Learning, 2006).
Devices
Delivery should not be limited to the PC platform. Educational content can also be made accessible via portable devices such as PDA and mobile phones. Such services are being developed and tested to be delivered without the use of high-end technologies like Wi-fi and GPRS. For example, a pan-European program supported by the European Commission's Information Society Technologies (IST) programme focuses on delivering educational content to 16-24 year olds (ICT Success Stories- Digital Education and Learning, 2006). It uses themes such as football and music to promote literacy and numeracy. The technology to deliver maths, geography and languages is being developed. Portable platforms such as mobile phones, Wi-fi enabled PDAs allow for personalized delivery and peer-to-peer interaction. These devices are easier to use than a PC.
The services can be advertising supported, reducing the cost to the individual subscriber.
Way forward
In conclusion, the language barrier need not be low in the priority list. Cost effective solutions exist and can be implemented.
Efforts undertaken to overcome the language barrier must be encouraged. Individuals and NGOs (Non-governmental organizations) engaged in making content accessible in languages that may not be commercially viable should be given recognition in the form of awards and funding.
References
International workshop on improving E-Learning policies and programs. (2004, 9-13 Aug). Manila.
ICT Success Stories- Digital Education and Learning. (2006). Retrieved 27 Oct, 2008, from http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict_stories/themes/education.html
Internet world users by language. (2008, 30 June). Retrieved 29 Oct, 2008, from http://www.internetworldstats.com/languages.htm
Farrell, G., & Wachholz, C. (Eds.). (2003). Meta-survey on the use of Technologies in Education in Asia and the Pacific: UNESCO.
Gray, V., Kelly, T., & Minges, M. (2002). Bits and Bahts: Thailand Internet Case Study: International Telecommunication Union Geneva, Switzerland.
Hutchins, J. (2004). The first public demonstration of machine translation: the Georgetown-IBM system, 7th January 1954. Paper presented at the AMTA Conference. Retrieved 31 Oct 2008 from http://www.hutchinsweb.me.uk/GU-IBM-2005.pdf
Och, F. (2005). The machines do the translating. The Official Google Blog, Retrieved 27 Oct, 2008, from http://googleblog.blogspot.com/2005/08/machines-do-translating.html
Pelgrum, W. J., & Law, N. (2003). ICT in education around the world: trends, problems and prospects: UNESCO: International Institute for Education Planning.
There is no doubt that English is the most common language on the internet. According to Internet World Stats report, the top three languages on the internet are English, Chinese and Spanish. So, all other languages in the world together account for 43.2% of internet usage.
The developing nations are at one end battling poverty reduction initiatives and putting in place or improving basic educational infrastructure at the other end having to catch up with developed nations in the more advanced areas of educational ICT. Creating content in local language is therefore lower on the priority list. Educational content and software are not readily available in local languages. Further, familiarity with English language is even lower among the economically backward classes, widening the digital divide.
Language can therefore become a barrier to e-learning as it limits the ability to use the internet. How can it be overcome? Some countries are faced with a dilemma- focus on teaching the English language so as to encourage ICT usage or invest in creation of educational content, software and technical documentation in local languages. There is a fear that emphasis on English language education can hurt assimilation of local language and cultures among the youth in these countries. Only countries like India and Philippines extensively offer the option of English as a medium of instruction.
I have summarized some successful ICT strategies that focus on the language barrier, as reported by International Telecommunication Union (ICT Success Stories- Digital Education and Learning, 2006):
Initiatives to overcome the language barrier
Let’s explore initiatives that are already undertaken and those that can be to overcome the language barrier:
Access
Reaching people living in remote locations is important as students in such locations are also unlikely to have access to qualified teachers. Radio and Television easily extend reach into rural areas. Among the successful ICT strategies listed earlier, three of them made use of radio. In India, a recently started educational channel delivered direct to home via satellite aims to provide audio in at least 2 local languages in addition to English.
VSAT (Very Small Aperture Terminals), a satellite communication system has been extensively utilized in the education sector in India. It is very useful in connecting remote locations.
To enable access to hardware- Keyboards in local language and software- user interfaces in local language need to be made available. This can pose a problem in some countries. India has over 20 local languages. In Thailand, the situation is more complicated with the Thai language character set requiring 90 different letters on keyboard compared to 66 for English.
Teacher support
Teachers’ inadequate English language competence has been reported as an obstacle to teachers’ learning of ICT according to Grinfields (1999) cited in Pelgrum & Law (2003)
Hence, documentation and training material for use of ICT has to be made available in local languages.
Hiring ICT trainers who can speak two or more languages would definitely benefit educational institutions. Countries that have common languages can pool their resources together. For instance, Tamil is taught in Singapore as well some states in southern India. Mandarin Chinese and Bahasa Malaysia are taught in Singapore and Malaysia. In India, with over 20 official languages, this should easy as people some states are familiar with 2 or more languages in addition to English.
Content
It is important to ensure that all content relevant to education, especially primary education is available local in languages. Most easy to implement, is to digitize local language content that is available in traditional print/ audio or video format and make it accessible.
Increased emphasis on visual elements such as animations, images, 3D environments instead of traditional text will make the content easily portable across different languages and facilitate easy understanding of concepts.
Just as sub-titles are used in movies and television programs, they should be used for educational content such as videos and animations as well.
Wikis can be a great tool to create content in local language. Wikipedia is the best example- in such a short span of time; it has more than 100,000 articles available in 23 languages.
Apart from creation of locally relevant content, translation of English language content into local languages is being done. As this is a tedious process to be implemented manually, machine translation is being made use of.
This first attempts to use machines to translate languages was made in the US in 1954 by collaboration between IBM and Georgetown University. Since then there have been other attempts at it. Google translator is a recent one. Clicking a button on the Google toolbar will allow people to read in English, pages in languages they are not familiar with. Sometime in the future, using instant messengers, we should be able to chat with people who do not speak the same language (as the computer will do the translations on the fly). Machine translations are not perfect but can definitely make the task easier by reducing the human effort.
Countries such as Bangladesh, India and Thailand are actively looking at machine translation to remove the language barrier.
Promoting English language literacy
While this can be definitely seen as controversial in many countries, functional knowledge of the language can go a long way in promoting adoption of ICT in education. Language learners can not only learn to read and write but also to speak. The software can save the conversation as an audio file and compare their pronunciation, with a benchmark and evaluate. Applications that can convert text to speech and speech to text would be extremely valuable.
Technology actually enables preservation of local culture, language and literary knowledge rather than being a threat to it. A good example would be “Te Ara” a national encyclopaedia of New Zealand (http://www.teara.govt.nz/) covering natural environment, history, culture, economy and institutions. It is available in Māori and English and makes extensive use of multimedia content including audio, video and innovative maps (ICT Success Stories- Digital Education and Learning, 2006).
Devices
Delivery should not be limited to the PC platform. Educational content can also be made accessible via portable devices such as PDA and mobile phones. Such services are being developed and tested to be delivered without the use of high-end technologies like Wi-fi and GPRS. For example, a pan-European program supported by the European Commission's Information Society Technologies (IST) programme focuses on delivering educational content to 16-24 year olds (ICT Success Stories- Digital Education and Learning, 2006). It uses themes such as football and music to promote literacy and numeracy. The technology to deliver maths, geography and languages is being developed. Portable platforms such as mobile phones, Wi-fi enabled PDAs allow for personalized delivery and peer-to-peer interaction. These devices are easier to use than a PC.
The services can be advertising supported, reducing the cost to the individual subscriber.
Way forward
In conclusion, the language barrier need not be low in the priority list. Cost effective solutions exist and can be implemented.
Efforts undertaken to overcome the language barrier must be encouraged. Individuals and NGOs (Non-governmental organizations) engaged in making content accessible in languages that may not be commercially viable should be given recognition in the form of awards and funding.
References
International workshop on improving E-Learning policies and programs. (2004, 9-13 Aug). Manila.
ICT Success Stories- Digital Education and Learning. (2006). Retrieved 27 Oct, 2008, from http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict_stories/themes/education.html
Internet world users by language. (2008, 30 June). Retrieved 29 Oct, 2008, from http://www.internetworldstats.com/languages.htm
Farrell, G., & Wachholz, C. (Eds.). (2003). Meta-survey on the use of Technologies in Education in Asia and the Pacific: UNESCO.
Gray, V., Kelly, T., & Minges, M. (2002). Bits and Bahts: Thailand Internet Case Study: International Telecommunication Union Geneva, Switzerland.
Hutchins, J. (2004). The first public demonstration of machine translation: the Georgetown-IBM system, 7th January 1954. Paper presented at the AMTA Conference. Retrieved 31 Oct 2008 from http://www.hutchinsweb.me.uk/GU-IBM-2005.pdf
Och, F. (2005). The machines do the translating. The Official Google Blog, Retrieved 27 Oct, 2008, from http://googleblog.blogspot.com/2005/08/machines-do-translating.html
Pelgrum, W. J., & Law, N. (2003). ICT in education around the world: trends, problems and prospects: UNESCO: International Institute for Education Planning.
Teaching Students to Find the Needle in a Haystack
Introduction
All leading portals predominantly display internet search tools and these can even be installed on to the toolbars in browsers. All the users have to do is to type in the word and click on the search button. The Oxford English Dictionary and Merriam Webster Collegiate Dictionary now recognize “google” as a verb, meaning “to use the Google search engine to obtain information about (as a person) on the World Wide Web.”
While many of us may walk way with an impression that it is fairly easy to search for information on the internet and this is not something that needs to be formally taught as a part of the school curriculum, Muthukumar, a curriculum designer who focuses on integration of ICT, differs. Given the expansive nature of the web and difficulty in ascertaining the accuracy and reliability of the information available, he advises that information search on the internet is not something that should be treated as commonplace. In a study he undertook as a part of his recent Ph.D. thesis, this was the focus.
Muthukumar asserts that it is not correct to assume that students know how to maximize the information potential of the internet. To be able to efficiently and effectively search for required information on the internet, the student must know how to use the internet search engines, the advanced search options they provide and apply Boolean logic rules. The information search process is also impacted by external factors such as students’ domain knowledge and knowledge about computer systems, such as file formats and country markers.
In the past few years, problem-solving learning activities have becoming increasingly prevalent in educational institutions. Internet-based information searching skills definitely play a critical role in enabling students to seek and apply relevant information to solve given problems.
Working with a hypothesis that there is a need to methodically train students in information search skills using the internet, in 2005 he conducted a study. The study looked at how students engaged in problem solving can be trained in the application of different information searching skills. The study was conducted at a unique institution in Singapore that relies on a problem based learning methodology across all subjects and levels- a perfect setting to measure the impact of internet information searching techniques.
“Information searching skills are non-trivial and complex to be left to be developed intuitively or autonomously by students on their own.”- Kumar
Research Design
This study used both quantitative and qualitative methodologies. The data sources were:
Open ended surveys, students’ documentation, audio recordings of classroom interactions, screen capture of students’ online navigation patterns and reflection journal entries. The design is detailed and complex to be described here but in summary used both well-structured and ill-structured problems and measurements were done before and after intervention. A set of 6 well and ill structured were problems were chosen for the study.
Well-structured problems are bounded by rules, with concepts organized in a predictive/ sequential manner and have singular, convergent solutions. Ill structured problems are open-ended, ambiguous, containing some unknown elements and have divergent/ conflicting solutions. An example of an ill-designed problem:
Space is very limited in Singapore and every square meter is precious.
In order to maximize space, design a 100 storey skyscraper that does
not use lifts, staircases, or escalators
Ill structured problems are relevant because unlike in a traditional educational environment, problems faced in our work environment are likely to be poorly structured, open-ended and multi-disciplinary.
Muthukumar developed and tested a framework that can be used to train students for information search skills in the context of problem solving. The framework enables the educator to provide scaffolding through a four stage model for ill-structured problems. For well-structured problems, stages 1 and 2 are adequate.
Stage 1: Students learn about the use of internet search tools such as search engines, meta-search engines (that search across multiple search engines) and directories.
Stage 2: Students learn to use information search strategies: using multiple search engines, verifying information through cross referencing, searching specific file formats, exact phrases, Boolean operators and key words
Stage 3: Students learn to craft essential questions- questions that invoke curiosity, force evaluation between choices and warrant exploration. Students then develop foundation or subsidiary questions that help them achieve search objectives conveyed by the essential question.
Illustration: Essential question: “Should the wetland areas in the USA be preserved?”
Possible foundation questions: “What is a wetland?”, “What are the reasons for saving wetlands?”, “Why are wetlands being destroyed?”, “Who is destroying wetlands?”, “How many acres of wetlands exist in the USA?”, “At what rate are wetlands being destroyed?” and “What are the best methods for saving wetlands?”
Stage 4: Students learn to develop and organize search keywords, construct a key word concept map.
Quantitative metrics
The students’ navigational pathways in searching for information and solving problem tasks were described in terms of two metrics: Path compactness and Stratum (Rivlin, Botafogo, Shneiderman, 1994). These are mathematically computed indicators of the linearity and connectedness of network-based structures defining users’ online navigational visitations. A high compactness value (1) indicates a navigational style involving easy movement from each node to other nodes within the network structure due to accessing a large number of cross referencing links. A low compactness (0) means little or no access of cross referencing links. Stratum indicates if there is natural/ linear order in which the nodes are visited. The value is highest (1) when the user navigates in a linear sequential fashion and lowest (0) when navigation is iterative or cyclical.
Study limitations
There are limitations to the study, in terms of small sample size (25 students, working in groups of 5) and lack of a control group for comparison. The study had to be conducted within the limits of pre-determined curriculum, limiting the choice of problems that could be administered to the students.
Research findings
Phase I
Preliminary investigation (before intervention) revealed that a majority of the students acknowledged the internet as a vital information provider but only about half the students made a plan when initiating an internet search and only 12% of them made an effort to formulate the keywords for the subject matter being researched. About 60% of the students were either not aware of differences between the different search engines or felt that there were none in terms of their functional attributes. On the positive side, most students were conscious about the authenticity and accuracy of information available and drawbacks of information overload.
When problems are well structured, information needs are limited and awareness of internet search tools and basic searching techniques are adequate. The navigational pattern in internet information search was found to be sequential and deep after some initial trial and error. However, when they are problems are ill-structured, information needs become complex, cross disciplinary and extensive. In such situations, the students’ navigational patterns in internet information search were complex, more iterative and diffused. Students would also redefine search terms frequently.
Phase II- Post intervention
Students appreciated the interventionist training program and felt that it improved their information seeking abilities, made them more confident about seeking and using the internet information, especially in problem based learning environments. Crafting foundation questions and keyword concept mapping were particularly useful in dealing with ill-structured problems. However, students felt the need to develop proficiency in these tasks and hence more training.
The results of the quantitative components of the study also demonstrate that different problem types demand different search capabilities and strategies. There was a significant improvement in efficiency, relevance and depth of the information obtained using the strategies outlined in the framework.
Recommendations
The research findings indicate that internet information search skills need to be systematically and formally taught to enable students to become better problem solvers. I agree with Muthukumar that the suggested framework can be incorporated into ICT training planned for students. While the model has been tested in a polytechnic, problem based learning environment, its application in other environments such as schools and colleges needs further research.
Information literacy also plays a crucial role here as once the search results are obtained, students must be able to evaluate them for relevance, authority, accuracy, currency and objectivity.
References
21st Century Literacies. (2002). Retrieved 25 Oct, 2008, from http://www.kn.pacbell.com/wired/21stcent/information.html
Muthukumar, L. (2008). Information seeking strategies in engaging in problem solving. Unpublished doctoral thesis, Macquarie University, Australia.
Rivlin, E., Botafogo, R., & Shneiderman, B. (1994). Navigating in hyperspace: Designing a structure-based toolbox. Communications of the ACM, 37(2), 87-96.
Barriers to ICT: Teacher Attitude, Beliefs and Motivation
Background
When barriers to ICT integration in schools are discussed, issues such as access, availability of content, relevance for a subject and computer skills are usually top-of-mind. In this paper, I would like to divert your attention to some intangible factors such as teacher attitude, beliefs and motivation that need to be addressed even before other factors are considered.
In support of my argument, here are some comments made by researchers:
“…ICT integration in education is (therefore) unlikely to succeed unless we understand teachers’ personal educational beliefs and their relationship with teaching practices” (Niederhauser & Stoddart, 2001) cited in Tondeur et al. (2008)
Researchers (Scrimshaw, 2004; van Braak et al., 2004) opine that even though the conditions for successful ICT integration finally appear to be in place – such as access to infrastructure, increased computer skills and sufficient computer training – the implementation of educational computer use has not yet reached a critical level, as cited in Tondeur et al. (2008). Ertmer, (2005) also suggests that additional barriers specifically related to teachers’ educational beliefs, might be at work, as cited in Tondeur et al (2008).
Ertmer (1999) referred to the barriers caused by teachers’ beliefs and attitudes concerning ICT, as second-order barriers. She highlighted that these need to be addressed before other external or first-order barriers are tackled. First-order barriers, such as the lack of access or training are more readily observed and more easily tackled, whereas second-order barriers may require major changes in daily routines and underlying beliefs about effective practice.
Belief in benefits of ICT in education
Many teachers themselves need to be convinced that integration of ICT into the classroom brings benefits. A benchmarking study surveying head teachers and class teachers was conducted in 2006 across 27 countries in Europe to benchmark the access and use of ICT in schools. This recent study indicated that 16% of teachers not using computers in the classroom believe that ICT offers “no or unclear benefits” to students. The study further indicates that there is a correlation between this skepticism and a lack of motivation to use ICT in the classroom with age/ no. of years of teaching experience. Further, a small proportion of teachers are just not interested at all in bringing computers into the classroom because of aversion to change.
A study conducted by Tondeur et al. among 574 primary school teachers in Belgium illustrates how the use of ICT is mediated by teachers’ beliefs about teaching and learning. The study profiles teachers according to their educational beliefs and links it to the type of computer use in the classroom. Based on the teachers’ beliefs, the study defines 4 profiles of teachers: Constructivist & Traditional, Constructivist, Traditional and an “Undefined profile”. The traditional teaching style is teacher-centered while constructivist teaching style is student centered allowing frequent and varied use of technology in the classroom. The table below summarizes the relationship between the teacher profile and reported classroom use of computers.
The authors recommend that teacher professional development must not make any overt attempts to change teachers’ educational beliefs or pressurize them to integrate ICT. The approach must be to showcase successful ICT integration and provide positive reinforcement and support. Older teachers deserve special attention and an orientation into benefits of ICT integration. Aversion to change has to be specially managed. Some schools have invested specifically in training in change management for teachers and school managers. (eg. Malaysia’s Smart School project).
Teacher confidence
Further, not all teachers are confident users of ICT and this affects the lesson conducted in the classroom.
The findings of Becta research (2003) of a sample of 170 teachers, listed “lack of confidence” as one of the key barriers to uptake of ICT in the classroom. Over 21% of the responses were related to confidence issues. The Becta literature review on ‘Barriers to uptake of ICT by teachers’ (2004) illustrates how there are close relationships between the barrier caused by a lack of teacher confidence and several other barriers such as lack of personal access to ICT, lack of competence or technical problems.
Teacher motivation
The ACM model (Access, Competence and Motivation Model proposed by Viherä and Nurmela, 2001) cited in pan-European benchmarking study can be used to explain the propensity to the use of computers and internet by teachers in classroom situations at schools.
Access to technology and associated resources is clearly a precursor for successful integration of ICT in the classrooms. Among teachers who do not use computers at school, access is the biggest problem. However, among those who do use computers at school, the motivation to use computers in the classroom is a cause for concern.
While access and competence are somewhat correlated, motivation (gauged through the attitude that using computers in classrooms results in significant learning benefits) does not show any correlation with the two other variables. Overall, about 24% of the teachers lacked motivation, though they had either competence or access and competence both.
As in any organization, employee motivation is affected by organizational policies; teacher motivation for ICT integration is affected by the school culture and ICT policy. Cuban et al. (2001) cited in Jones (2004), suggest that the school as an institution may in itself be resistant to the kinds of change needed for the successful integration of ICT.
The school management must encourage teachers to adopt ICT and back it up with adequate support in terms of training, equipment and resources. Training teachers cannot be a one-off event covering issues like how to use a particular software/ hardware. It should be in the form of a longer term professional development program. Support can be continued through peer groups that may be ICT enabled and in the form of web sites, discussion groups, and e-mail communities.
The school management and senior staff must clearly demonstrate leadership by example and personal involvement in any new and major ICT initiatives. Encouraging experimentation through incentives is important while at the same time, failure should not be looked down upon. All school policies, internal communication, administration, assessments and maybe even extra-curricular activities must reflect their seriousness about ICT. Hayes (2007) highlights how whole-school approaches have positive effects – the entire school benefits instead of a few individuals, involves all stakeholders in the process of ICT integration and provides an opportunity for pooling of skills and resources. Incentives may include certification, professional advancement, financial benefits, paid time off for research or training and formal or informal recognition at the school or local community.
In conclusion, I would like to reiterate that teacher attitude and beliefs, confidence and motivation as barriers for ICT are much more important than software and hardware investment. As Mahatma Gandhi said “Find purpose, the means will follow”.
References
What the research says about barriers to use of ICT in teaching. (2003): Becta ICT Research.
Benchmarking Access and Use of ICT in European Schools 2006. (2006): Empirica.
ICT in Teacher Education: Case Studies from the Asia-Pacific Region. (2008): United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO).
Ertmer, P. E. A. (1999). Examining teachers' beliefs about the role of technology in the elementary classroom. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 32(1), 54-72.
Hayes, D. N. A. (2007). ICT and learning: Lessons from Australian classrooms. Computers and Education, 49(2), 385-395.
Jones, A. (2004). A review of the research literature on barriers to the uptake of ICT by teachers: Becta.
Tondeur, J. Hermans, R., Braak, J. v., & Valcke, M.(2008), Exploring the link between teachers’ educational belief profiles and different types of computer use in the classroom, Computers in Human Behavior (2008), doi:10.1016/j.chb.2008.02.020
Trucano, M. (2008). Teachers, Teaching and ICTs - A Knowledge Map on Information & Communication Technologies in Education. Retrieved 06-Sep, 2008, from http://www.infodev.org/en/Publication.157.html
When barriers to ICT integration in schools are discussed, issues such as access, availability of content, relevance for a subject and computer skills are usually top-of-mind. In this paper, I would like to divert your attention to some intangible factors such as teacher attitude, beliefs and motivation that need to be addressed even before other factors are considered.
In support of my argument, here are some comments made by researchers:
“…ICT integration in education is (therefore) unlikely to succeed unless we understand teachers’ personal educational beliefs and their relationship with teaching practices” (Niederhauser & Stoddart, 2001) cited in Tondeur et al. (2008)
Researchers (Scrimshaw, 2004; van Braak et al., 2004) opine that even though the conditions for successful ICT integration finally appear to be in place – such as access to infrastructure, increased computer skills and sufficient computer training – the implementation of educational computer use has not yet reached a critical level, as cited in Tondeur et al. (2008). Ertmer, (2005) also suggests that additional barriers specifically related to teachers’ educational beliefs, might be at work, as cited in Tondeur et al (2008).
Ertmer (1999) referred to the barriers caused by teachers’ beliefs and attitudes concerning ICT, as second-order barriers. She highlighted that these need to be addressed before other external or first-order barriers are tackled. First-order barriers, such as the lack of access or training are more readily observed and more easily tackled, whereas second-order barriers may require major changes in daily routines and underlying beliefs about effective practice.
Belief in benefits of ICT in education
Many teachers themselves need to be convinced that integration of ICT into the classroom brings benefits. A benchmarking study surveying head teachers and class teachers was conducted in 2006 across 27 countries in Europe to benchmark the access and use of ICT in schools. This recent study indicated that 16% of teachers not using computers in the classroom believe that ICT offers “no or unclear benefits” to students. The study further indicates that there is a correlation between this skepticism and a lack of motivation to use ICT in the classroom with age/ no. of years of teaching experience. Further, a small proportion of teachers are just not interested at all in bringing computers into the classroom because of aversion to change.
A study conducted by Tondeur et al. among 574 primary school teachers in Belgium illustrates how the use of ICT is mediated by teachers’ beliefs about teaching and learning. The study profiles teachers according to their educational beliefs and links it to the type of computer use in the classroom. Based on the teachers’ beliefs, the study defines 4 profiles of teachers: Constructivist & Traditional, Constructivist, Traditional and an “Undefined profile”. The traditional teaching style is teacher-centered while constructivist teaching style is student centered allowing frequent and varied use of technology in the classroom. The table below summarizes the relationship between the teacher profile and reported classroom use of computers.
The authors recommend that teacher professional development must not make any overt attempts to change teachers’ educational beliefs or pressurize them to integrate ICT. The approach must be to showcase successful ICT integration and provide positive reinforcement and support. Older teachers deserve special attention and an orientation into benefits of ICT integration. Aversion to change has to be specially managed. Some schools have invested specifically in training in change management for teachers and school managers. (eg. Malaysia’s Smart School project).Teacher confidence
Further, not all teachers are confident users of ICT and this affects the lesson conducted in the classroom.
The findings of Becta research (2003) of a sample of 170 teachers, listed “lack of confidence” as one of the key barriers to uptake of ICT in the classroom. Over 21% of the responses were related to confidence issues. The Becta literature review on ‘Barriers to uptake of ICT by teachers’ (2004) illustrates how there are close relationships between the barrier caused by a lack of teacher confidence and several other barriers such as lack of personal access to ICT, lack of competence or technical problems.
Teacher motivation
The ACM model (Access, Competence and Motivation Model proposed by Viherä and Nurmela, 2001) cited in pan-European benchmarking study can be used to explain the propensity to the use of computers and internet by teachers in classroom situations at schools.
Access to technology and associated resources is clearly a precursor for successful integration of ICT in the classrooms. Among teachers who do not use computers at school, access is the biggest problem. However, among those who do use computers at school, the motivation to use computers in the classroom is a cause for concern.
While access and competence are somewhat correlated, motivation (gauged through the attitude that using computers in classrooms results in significant learning benefits) does not show any correlation with the two other variables. Overall, about 24% of the teachers lacked motivation, though they had either competence or access and competence both.
As in any organization, employee motivation is affected by organizational policies; teacher motivation for ICT integration is affected by the school culture and ICT policy. Cuban et al. (2001) cited in Jones (2004), suggest that the school as an institution may in itself be resistant to the kinds of change needed for the successful integration of ICT.
The school management must encourage teachers to adopt ICT and back it up with adequate support in terms of training, equipment and resources. Training teachers cannot be a one-off event covering issues like how to use a particular software/ hardware. It should be in the form of a longer term professional development program. Support can be continued through peer groups that may be ICT enabled and in the form of web sites, discussion groups, and e-mail communities.
The school management and senior staff must clearly demonstrate leadership by example and personal involvement in any new and major ICT initiatives. Encouraging experimentation through incentives is important while at the same time, failure should not be looked down upon. All school policies, internal communication, administration, assessments and maybe even extra-curricular activities must reflect their seriousness about ICT. Hayes (2007) highlights how whole-school approaches have positive effects – the entire school benefits instead of a few individuals, involves all stakeholders in the process of ICT integration and provides an opportunity for pooling of skills and resources. Incentives may include certification, professional advancement, financial benefits, paid time off for research or training and formal or informal recognition at the school or local community.
In conclusion, I would like to reiterate that teacher attitude and beliefs, confidence and motivation as barriers for ICT are much more important than software and hardware investment. As Mahatma Gandhi said “Find purpose, the means will follow”.
References
What the research says about barriers to use of ICT in teaching. (2003): Becta ICT Research.
Benchmarking Access and Use of ICT in European Schools 2006. (2006): Empirica.
ICT in Teacher Education: Case Studies from the Asia-Pacific Region. (2008): United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO).
Ertmer, P. E. A. (1999). Examining teachers' beliefs about the role of technology in the elementary classroom. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 32(1), 54-72.
Hayes, D. N. A. (2007). ICT and learning: Lessons from Australian classrooms. Computers and Education, 49(2), 385-395.
Jones, A. (2004). A review of the research literature on barriers to the uptake of ICT by teachers: Becta.
Tondeur, J. Hermans, R., Braak, J. v., & Valcke, M.(2008), Exploring the link between teachers’ educational belief profiles and different types of computer use in the classroom, Computers in Human Behavior (2008), doi:10.1016/j.chb.2008.02.020
Trucano, M. (2008). Teachers, Teaching and ICTs - A Knowledge Map on Information & Communication Technologies in Education. Retrieved 06-Sep, 2008, from http://www.infodev.org/en/Publication.157.html
Using Analogies and Modeling in Conjunction With ICT to Enhance Learning
The debate on how ICT must be integrated into the classroom has been on for more than two decades and shows no signs of closure. The teaching community will agree that integration must not be just for the sake of it- it must be meaningful and bring value that no other instructional method can, as efficiently. One of the studies covered here actually demonstrates that using computers or multimedia in isolation can be less effective than traditional classroom pedagogy.
The underlying instructional method when using multimedia or ICT in general is vital. I have considered two instructional methods that are quite amenable to be used in conjunction with computers- analogy and modeling, especially in teaching science.
Multimedia and Analogy
With the objective of improving science education, researchers and educators have explored the use of analogies in teaching. Two types of analogies that find application are ‘conceptual inference’ and ‘schema induced’. In ‘conceptual inference’, analogical reasoning is made on the basis of relationship between key concepts in the base and the target domains. However, this approach has limitations because semantic ambiguity may result in a mismatch in concepts between base and target domains. On the other hand, induced analogical reasoning requires the learner to understand the analogy through activation of prior knowledge. Gick & Holyoak (1983) cited in Zheng, Yang, Garcia & McCadden (2008) assure that schema induction facilitates better comprehension and knowledge transfer.
___________________________________________________________
Zheng, R. Z., Yang, W., Garcia, D., & McCadden, E. P. (2008). Effects of multimedia and schema induced analogical reasoning on science learning. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2729.2008.00282.x
___________________________________________________________
Multimedia can bring more benefits to education provided it is not just passive viewing (such as video). Interactivity brings engagement and contributes to improved learning. Schwartz (1993) cited in Zheng et al. concluded that visuals provide better cues in problem solving reasoning.
As they were using media with high visual impact, the researchers have also taken into account learner cognitive style which has an impact on learner performance. There are two types of cognitive styles- field dependence and independence. Though these cognitive styles are primarily related to visual perceptiveness, they are shown to be correlated with other cognitive abilities such as problem solving and reasoning. The researchers used the Group Embedded Figure Test (GEFT), developed by Witkin et al. (1971) to determine the learning styles of the students.
Field Dependence/ Independence
Field-independents prefer to have a narrow focus and screen additional information in order to be able to process information more efficiently. In the process, they may miss the social context that their field-dependent peers more readily perceive.
Zheng et al. (2008) focused on
Effects of multimedia combined with analogical reasoning on student performance
Influence of field type on learners’ analogical reasoning
They conducted the study with 89 students from Grade 4 in a school in north-eastern USA. The research design involved creation of four groups based on exposure to multimedia and analogy.
Group 1: Multimedia and analogy (MA)
Group 2: Multimedia (as a visual tool) with no analogy (MNA)
Group 3: Analogy and no multimedia (ANM)
Group 4: No multimedia and no analogy (NMNA): traditional classroom style teaching and memorization
The objective was to teach about electrical DC circuits (comprising wires, voltage source and a light bulb) with the water system (comprising pipes, pump and turbine) as an analogy.
Post teaching, the participants of the study undertook recall and transfer tests, considered reliable for measuring comprehension and knowledge application. The research findings indicate that the first group with exposure to both multimedia and analogy outperformed all the other groups. The group with exposure to multimedia with no analogy had the lowest mean scores for both recall and transfer.
The underlying instructional method when using multimedia or ICT in general is vital. I have considered two instructional methods that are quite amenable to be used in conjunction with computers- analogy and modeling, especially in teaching science.
Multimedia and Analogy
With the objective of improving science education, researchers and educators have explored the use of analogies in teaching. Two types of analogies that find application are ‘conceptual inference’ and ‘schema induced’. In ‘conceptual inference’, analogical reasoning is made on the basis of relationship between key concepts in the base and the target domains. However, this approach has limitations because semantic ambiguity may result in a mismatch in concepts between base and target domains. On the other hand, induced analogical reasoning requires the learner to understand the analogy through activation of prior knowledge. Gick & Holyoak (1983) cited in Zheng, Yang, Garcia & McCadden (2008) assure that schema induction facilitates better comprehension and knowledge transfer.
___________________________________________________________
Zheng, R. Z., Yang, W., Garcia, D., & McCadden, E. P. (2008). Effects of multimedia and schema induced analogical reasoning on science learning. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2729.2008.00282.x
___________________________________________________________
Multimedia can bring more benefits to education provided it is not just passive viewing (such as video). Interactivity brings engagement and contributes to improved learning. Schwartz (1993) cited in Zheng et al. concluded that visuals provide better cues in problem solving reasoning.
As they were using media with high visual impact, the researchers have also taken into account learner cognitive style which has an impact on learner performance. There are two types of cognitive styles- field dependence and independence. Though these cognitive styles are primarily related to visual perceptiveness, they are shown to be correlated with other cognitive abilities such as problem solving and reasoning. The researchers used the Group Embedded Figure Test (GEFT), developed by Witkin et al. (1971) to determine the learning styles of the students.
Field Dependence/ Independence
Field-independents prefer to have a narrow focus and screen additional information in order to be able to process information more efficiently. In the process, they may miss the social context that their field-dependent peers more readily perceive.
Zheng et al. (2008) focused on
Effects of multimedia combined with analogical reasoning on student performance
Influence of field type on learners’ analogical reasoning
They conducted the study with 89 students from Grade 4 in a school in north-eastern USA. The research design involved creation of four groups based on exposure to multimedia and analogy.
Group 1: Multimedia and analogy (MA)
Group 2: Multimedia (as a visual tool) with no analogy (MNA)
Group 3: Analogy and no multimedia (ANM)
Group 4: No multimedia and no analogy (NMNA): traditional classroom style teaching and memorization
The objective was to teach about electrical DC circuits (comprising wires, voltage source and a light bulb) with the water system (comprising pipes, pump and turbine) as an analogy.
Post teaching, the participants of the study undertook recall and transfer tests, considered reliable for measuring comprehension and knowledge application. The research findings indicate that the first group with exposure to both multimedia and analogy outperformed all the other groups. The group with exposure to multimedia with no analogy had the lowest mean scores for both recall and transfer.
Based on the findings, (Zheng et al. 2008 p.8) conclude: “…the instructional function of multimedia can be significantly enhanced when multimedia is integrated with an adequately designed instructional method.” The researchers also observed that interactive multimedia with visual, oral, aural and other cues supports field dependent type learners who resort to multiple cues in learning.
Using Computer Modelling
Simulations have been used in the past to teach scientific models. However, there is a subtle difference between “simulations” and “modelling” and these terms should not be used interchangeably. Li, Law & Lui (2006) make a very clear distinction between the two. Simulations can be explored by manipulating the variables or parameters provided but the underlying rules of operation cannot be changed. Modelling allows you to change the underlying rules themselves.
___________________________________________________________
Li, S. C., Law, N., & Lui, K. F. A. (2006). Cognitive perturbation through dynamic modelling: a pedagogical approach to conceptual change in science Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 22(6), 405-422
___________________________________________________________
This paper highlights an inquiry based, student centered approach and is heavily dependent on interactivity and personalized learning afforded by computers.
Windschitl & Andre (1998) cited in Li et al. (2006, p.406) report “It was argued that computer-supported simulation and modeling tools provide students with richly contextualized environments to theorize and evaluate their own hypothesis”.
Using software called WorldMaker 2000, the researchers allowed students to explore scientific phenomena by formulating and testing their own theories. Students compared results in the software based model with what they observed in reality and modified it until it helped them provide a satisfactory explanation of the observed phenomenon. The researchers conducted the study with a small sample of 20 students of Grade 6 in a local school in Hong Kong.
The study uses the simple phenomenon of evaporation to illustrate the process of conceptual change. The teacher first demonstrated in the classroom how when a tiny vase of alcohol is opened, it disappears while its smell disperses through the room. Students, divided into four groups of 5 each were then asked to create models explaining the observed phenomenon. The research program extended over a few sessions and some preliminary training for the use of software was also required.
No ideas or views by students were suppressed or ignored, encouraging the inquiry process. The teacher intervened periodically by providing “cognitive perturbation” or disturbance so that the students were guided towards making the right decisions in manipulating the model. “The focus of teachers’ facilitation was to work with rather than against, the students’ alternative conceptions in the process of their model building and modification.” Li et al. (2006, p.409)
The evaporation model had to take into account both the processes:
1. Dispersion of the smell of the alcohol into the surrounding
2. Eventual disappearance of alcohol from the vase
Following the progress of each of the groups over the sessions enlightens us how the model gets more sophisticated as students are challenged.
Misconceptions that were mentioned by students included:
- Considering that a gas was being liberated from inside the alcohol
- The two processes of evaporation and disappearance of alcohol are independent of each other
- Considering that the disappearance of alcohol was caused by a suction force generated by the sun
- The “alcohol gas” rose vertically up like steam does on the opening of a rice cooker
With facilitation by the teacher, the students were able to migrate from their original naïve conceptions towards a more scientific one.
The researchers grouped all the comments made by students in the explanation of the model according to the depth of understanding manifested in them. Mere descriptions of the experimental observations were classified as “Surface explanations”. “Shallow or particulate mechanism explanations” included those describing particulate level of interactions, though not necessarily scientifically correct. The highest level included scientifically acceptable, deeper interpretations of the phenomenon, making references to random motion of particulate matter or change of state during evaporation. As the assignment progressed, the number of scientifically acceptable statements increased and the surface and shallow explanations decreased. The progress made by the groups was graphed using scores. The scores were measured by assigning a weight of (+3) for deep, scientifically acceptable statements, (-1) for shallow statements and (-3) for surface statements. However, the key point again, is that the path and the number of stages that each group took to reach the correct theory was not the same. In fact, one of the groups actually experienced conceptual regression before making progress.
“The underlying notion of cognitive perturbation strategy, as we propose in this study, hinges on the understanding that paths of conceptual change for different students are idiosyncratic, diverse and context laden.” Li et al. (2006, p.407).
Getting the students to compare the behavior of the computer models created with the observed physical phenomenon leads to a conflict that guides the conceptual change.
Implementation of this study across more learning situations and with larger sample sizes will provide more insights and make the recommendations more robust.
Conclusion
Both the papers clearly demonstrate the underlying instructional method is fundamental to the integration of ICT into classroom science education. While such implementation (modelling, multimedia) on a daily basis may seem tedious, using them to teach fundamental science concepts can provide a firm grounding for students to build on in subsequent years.
References
Introduction to Learning Styles (n.d.) Retrieved Sept. 16, 2008, from http://www.ais.msstate.edu/TALS/unit9/moduleA.html
Field Dependence/ Independence (n.d.) Retrieved Sept. 16, 2008, from http://faculty.mdc.edu/jmcnair/Joe13pages/field_dependence.htm
Li, S. C., Law, N., & Lui, K. F. A. (2006). Cognitive perturbation through dynamic modelling: a pedagogical approach to conceptual change in science Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 22(6), 405-422.
Zheng, R. Z., Yang, W., Garcia, D., & McCadden, E. P. (2008). Effects of multimedia and schema induced analogical reasoning on science learning. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2729.2008.00282.x
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